Phosphoproteomics of ATR signaling in mouse testes.

The phosphatidylinositol 3' kinase (PI3K)-related kinase ATR is crucial for mammalian meiosis. ATR promotes meiotic progression by coordinating key events in DNA repair, meiotic sex chromosome inactivation (MSCI), and checkpoint-dependent quality control during meiotic prophase I. Despite its central roles in meiosis, the ATR-dependent meiotic signaling network remains largely unknown. Here, we used phosphoproteomics to define ATR signaling events in testes from mice following chemical and genetic ablation of ATR signaling. Quantitative analysis of phosphoproteomes obtained after germ cell-specific genetic ablation of the ATR activating 9-1-1 complex or treatment with ATR inhibitor identified over 14,000 phosphorylation sites from testes samples, of which 401 phosphorylation sites were found to be dependent on both the 9-1-1 complex and ATR. Our analyses identified ATR-dependent phosphorylation events in crucial DNA damage signaling and DNA repair proteins including TOPBP1, SMC3, MDC1, RAD50, and SLX4. Importantly, we identified ATR and RAD1-dependent phosphorylation events in proteins involved in mRNA regulatory processes, including SETX and RANBP3, whose localization to the sex body was lost upon ATR inhibition. In addition to identifying the expected ATR-targeted S/T-Q motif, we identified enrichment of an S/T-P-X-K motif in the set of ATR-dependent events, suggesting that ATR promotes signaling via proline-directed kinase(s) during meiosis. Indeed, we found that ATR signaling is important for the proper localization of CDK2 in spermatocytes. Overall, our analysis establishes a map of ATR signaling in mouse testes and highlights potential meiotic-specific actions of ATR during prophase I progression.

Multiple 9-1-1 complexes promote homolog synapsis, DSB repair, and ATR signaling during mammalian meiosis.

DNA damage response mechanisms have meiotic roles that ensure successful gamete formation. While completion of meiotic double-strand break (DSB) repair requires the canonical RAD9A-RAD1-HUS1 (9A-1-1) complex, mammalian meiocytes also express RAD9A and HUS1 paralogs, RAD9B and HUS1B, predicted to form alternative 9-1-1 complexes. The RAD1 subunit is shared by all predicted 9-1-1 complexes and localizes to meiotic chromosomes even in the absence of HUS1 and RAD9A. Here, we report that testis-specific disruption of RAD1 in mice resulted in impaired DSB repair, germ cell depletion, and infertility. Unlike Hus1 or Rad9a disruption, Rad1 loss in meiocytes also caused severe defects in homolog synapsis, impaired phosphorylation of ATR targets such as H2AX, CHK1, and HORMAD2, and compromised meiotic sex chromosome inactivation. Together, these results establish critical roles for both canonical and alternative 9-1-1 complexes in meiotic ATR activation and successful prophase I completion.