Object play and problem solving in infancy: Insights into tool use.

Tool use is primarily, but not exclusively, present in species with otherwise advanced cognitive traits. However, the interaction between such traits and conspecific inter-individual variation in the presence, complexity, or intensity of tool use is far from being established. We addressed this matter among human infants, seeking factors that relate to differences in tool use. We examined, both correlationally and experimentally, whether the propensity to engage in object combinations predicts performance in means-end problem-solving tasks involving or not involving the use of a tool. We tested 71 infants aged 15, 18, 21, and 24 months, dividing them into two subgroups: one exposed to an adult demonstrating object-object combinations (i.e., "prompting" infants to combine objects together) and another with comparable social exposure but where the adult demonstrated single-object manipulations. We found a correlation between the combined level of spontaneous and prompted object combinations and problem-solving performance regardless of the involvement of tools in the problem. However, we did not find differences in tool-use performance between the two demonstration subgroups. The correlational analysis suggests that complexity of play, as measured by the frequency of combining objects, is linked to infants' problem-solving skills rather than being specifically associated with tool use, as previously suggested in the literature.

Intra- and interspecific variation in self-control capacities of parrots in a delay of gratification task.

Forgoing immediate satisfaction for higher pay-offs in the future (delayed gratification) could be adaptive in situations that wild animals may encounter. To explain species-differences in self-control, hypotheses based on social complexity, feeding ecology, brain size and metabolic rate have been proposed. To explore these hypotheses in a comparative setting, we tested three macaw species (neotropical parrots)-great green macaws (N = 8), blue-throated macaws (N = 6), blue-headed macaws (N = 6)-and the distantly related African grey parrots (afrotropical parrots; N = 8) in a modified rotating tray task, in which subjects are required to inhibit consuming a constantly available low-quality reward in favour of a high-quality reward that becomes available only after an increasing delay (min. 5 s, max. 60 s). All four species successfully waited for a minimum of 8.3 s ± 11.7 s (group level mean ± SD) with African greys reaching a delay of 29.4 ± 15.2 s, and great green macaws-as best performing macaw species-tolerating delays of 20 s ± 8 s. The best performing African grey individual reached a maximum delay of 50 s, whereas, a great green and a blue-throated macaw tolerated a delay of 30 s max. Females tolerated higher maximum delays than males. Engaging in distraction behaviours enhanced waiting performance across species and all birds were able to anticipate the waiting duration. Our results suggest that both feeding and socio-ecological complexity may be a factor in self-control, but further systematically collected comparative data on self-control of different (parrot) species are required to test the evolutionary hypotheses rigorously.

Characteristics of urban environments and novel problem-solving performance in Eurasian red squirrels.

Urban environments can be deemed 'harsh' for some wildlife species, but individuals frequently show behavioural flexibility to cope with challenges and demands posed by life in the city. For example, urban animals often show better performance in solving novel problems than rural conspecifics, which helps when using novel resources under human-modified environments. However, which characteristics of urban environments fine-tune novel problem-solving performance, and their relative importance, remain unclear. Here, we examined how four urban environmental characteristics (direct human disturbance, indirect human disturbance, size of green coverage and squirrel population size) may potentially influence novel problem-solving performance of a successful 'urban dweller', the Eurasian red squirrel, by presenting them with a novel food-extraction problem. We found that increased direct human disturbance, indirect human disturbance and a higher squirrel population size decreased the proportion of solving success at the population level. At the individual level, an increase in squirrel population size decreased the latency to successfully solve the novel problem the first time. More importantly, increased direct human disturbance, squirrel population size and experience with the novel problem decreased problem-solving time over time. These findings highlight that some urban environmental characteristics shape two phenotypic extremes in the behaviour-flexibility spectrum: individuals either demonstrated enhanced learning or they failed to solve the novel problem.

Innovative problem solving in macaws.

Behavioural innovations with tool-like objects in non-habitually tool-using species are thought to require complex physical understanding, but the underlying cognitive processes remain poorly understood. A few parrot species are capable of innovating tool-use and borderline tool-use behaviours. We tested this capacity in two species of macaw (Ara ambiguus, n = 9; Ara glaucogularis, n = 8) to investigate if they could solve a problem-solving task through manufacture of a multi-stone construction. Specifically, after having functional experience with a pre-inserted stick tool to push a reward out of a horizontal tube, the subjects were required to insert five stones consecutively from one side to perform the same function as the stick tool with the resulting multi-component construction. One Ara glaucogularis solved the task and innovated the stone construction after the experience with the stick tool. Two more subjects (one of each species) did so after having further functional experience of a single stone pushing a reward out of a shortened tube. These subjects were able to consistently solve the task, but often made errors, for example counter-productive stone insertions from the opposing end, even in some of the successful trials. Conversely, multiple trials without errors also suggested a strong goal direction. Their performance in the follow-up tasks was inconclusive since they sometimes inserted stones into un-baited or blocked 'dummy tubes', but this could have been an attention-deficit behaviour as subjects had not encountered these 'dummy tubes' before. Overall, the successful subjects' performance was so erratic that it proved difficult to conclude whether they had functional understanding of their multi-stone constructions.

Social learning in great white pelicans (Pelecanus onocrotalus): A preliminary study.

Great white pelicans (Pelecanus onocrotalus) exhibit life-history parameters and ecological traits thought to be associated with social learning, and advanced cognitive processing more generally. In this study we investigated whether this species can acquire novel behavior socially in a foraging context. Birds from the test group watched a trained conspecific opening an opaque box containing a food reward by using its beak, whereas the control group had no demonstrator but saw the box for an equivalent time span. Individuals from both groups were subsequently allowed access to the box. Subjects of the test group performed significantly better than the control group. This is the first experimental evidence of social learning in a cooperatively hunting bird. Further studies are needed in order to shed light on the factors favoring the evolution of this capacity, by testing different pelican species that vary in their ecology.

Are parrots poor at motor self-regulation or is the cylinder task poor at measuring it?

The ability to inhibit unproductive motor responses triggered by salient stimuli is a fundamental inhibitory skill. Such motor self-regulation is thought to underlie more complex cognitive mechanisms, like self-control. Recently, a large-scale study, comparing 36 species, found that absolute brain size best predicted competence in motor inhibition, with great apes as the best performers. This was challenged when three Corvus species (corvids) were found to parallel great apes despite having much smaller absolute brain sizes. However, new analyses suggest that it is the number of pallial neurons, and not absolute brain size per se, that correlates with levels of motor inhibition. Both studies used the cylinder task, a detour-reaching test where food is presented behind a transparent barrier. We tested four species from the order Psittaciformes (parrots) on this task. Like corvids, many parrots have relatively large brains, high numbers of pallial neurons, and solve challenging cognitive tasks. Nonetheless, parrots performed markedly worse than the Corvus species in the cylinder task and exhibited strong learning effects in performance and response times. Our results suggest either that parrots are poor at controlling their motor impulses, and hence that pallial neuronal numbers do not always correlate with such skills, or that the widely used cylinder task may not be a good measure of motor inhibition.

Determinants of outcome following laparoscopic peritoneal lavage for perforated diverticulitis.

BACKGROUND: Laparoscopic peritoneal lavage has been proposed for generalized peritonitis from perforated diverticulitis to avoid a stoma. Reports of its feasibility and safety are promising. This study aimed to establish determinants of failure to enable improved selection of patients for this approach. METHODS: The study included all patients with perforated sigmoid diverticulitis who underwent emergency laparoscopic peritoneal lavage from January 2000 to December 2013. Factors predicting failure of laparoscopic treatment were analysed from data collected retrospectively. RESULTS: For patients undergoing emergency sigmoid resection (72 of 361), mortality and morbidity rates were 13 and 35 per cent respectively. In all, 71 patients had laparoscopic lavage, with mortality and morbidity rates of 6 and 28 per cent respectively. Reintervention was necessary in 11 patients (15 per cent) for unresolved sepsis. Age 80 years or more, American Society of Anesthesiologists grade III or above, and immunosuppression were associated with reintervention. CONCLUSION: Elderly patients and those with immunosuppression or severe systemic co-morbidity are at risk of reintervention after laparoscopic lavage.

Self-reported impacts of recreational and medicinal cannabis use on driving ability and amount of wait time before driving.

OBJECTIVE: Past research indicates that driving after cannabis use is relatively common. However, not all cannabis users are equally likely to drive after use; frequent cannabis users and frequent drivers are most at risk. It has been suggested that this is due to a perceived lack of impact of cannabis on driving ability. METHODS: The current study sought to better understand the motivation to drive after recent cannabis use. A survey was used to examine the self-reported impact of cannabis use on driving ability and, further, the amount of time cannabis users wait before driving after use. A total of 562 participants were recruited. Of these, 424 completed the survey and were included for analysis. Purposive sampling was used to screen for cannabis users who were over the age of 18 and residents of Connecticut. RESULTS: Cannabis use frequency was found to predict the self-reported impact of both recreational and medicinal cannabis on driving ability, such that more frequent cannabis users reported less impairment. Additionally, cannabis use frequency was predictive of wait time before driving, where more frequent users reported waiting less time before driving after cannabis use. A plurality of participants reported not waiting at all before driving after using cannabis. Notably, the self-reported impact of cannabis on driving ability was not associated with wait time before driving. CONCLUSIONS: Cannabis users may not wait before driving even if they think it has a negative impact on their driving ability. Other factors that potentially impact driving after using cannabis warrant investigation.

Multiple responses of Mytilus galloprovincialis to plastic microfibers.

Plastic microfibers (MF) represent the major source of MF found in the environment, the majority made of polyester (PES). Marine bivalves, suspension feeders widespread in coastal areas subjected to higher anthropogenic input, can accumulate MF from the water column in their tissues. This raised some concern about their possible impact on bivalve health and potential transfer along the food chain. In this work, the effects of PES-MF on the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis were investigated, utilizing MF obtained by cryo-milling of a fleece cover. Fiber characterization indicated the polymer composition as polyethylene terephthalate (PET); the size distribution was in a length range resembling that of MF released from textile washing, and including those that can be ingested by mussels. MF were first screened for short-term in vitro immune responses in mussel hemocytes. The effects of in vivo exposure (96 h, 10 and 100 µg/L, corresponding to about 150 and 1500 MF/mussel/L, respectively), were then evaluated. Data are presented on hemolymph immune biomarkers (Reactive Oxygen Species and nitric oxide production, lysozyme activity), and on antioxidant biomarkers (catalase and glutathione S-transferase) and histopathology in gills and digestive gland. Tissue MF accumulation was also evaluated. MF exposure stimulated extracellular immune responses both in vitro and in vivo, indicating induction of immune/inflammatory processes. In both tissues, stimulation of antioxidant enzyme activities, suggesting oxidative stress conditions, and histopathological changes were observed, with stronger effects often observed at lower concentration. Although mussel retained a very small fraction of MF, their accumulation was higher in the digestive gland than in gills, and in both tissues of mussels exposed to the lowest concentration. Selective accumulation of shorter MF was also observed, particularly in gills. Overall, the results demonstrate that at environmental exposure levels, PET-MF have a significant impact on mussel physiology, affecting multiple processes in different tissues.

Final analysis and results of the Phase II SIMPLE dark matter search.

We report the final results of the Phase II SIMPLE measurements, comprising two run stages of 15 superheated droplet detectors each, with the second stage including an improved neutron shielding. The analyses include a refined signal analysis, and revised nucleation efficiency based on a reanalysis of previously reported monochromatic neutron irradiations. The combined results yield a contour minimum of σp=5.7×10(-3) pb at 35 GeV/c2 in the spin-dependent sector of weakly interacting massive particle (WIMP) proton interactions, the most restrictive to date for MW}≤60 GeV/c2 from a direct search experiment and overlapping, for the first time, with results previously obtained only indirectly. In the spin-independent sector, a minimum of 4.7×10(-6) pb at 35 GeV/c2 is achieved, with the exclusion contour challenging a significant part of the light mass WIMP region of current interest.

Memory for own actions in parrots.

The ability to recall one's past actions is a crucial prerequisite for mental self-representation and episodic memory. We studied whether blue-throated macaws, a social macaw species, can remember their previous actions. The parrots were trained to repeat four previously learned actions upon command. Test sessions included repeat trials, double repeat trials and trials without repeat intermixed to test if the parrots repeated correctly, only when requested and not relying on a representation of the last behavioral command. Following their success, the parrots also received sessions with increasing time delays preceding the repeat command and successfully mastered 12-15 s delays. The parrots successfully transferred the repeat command spontaneously at first trial to three newly trained behaviors they had never repeated before, and also succeeded in a second trial intermixed with already trained actions (untrained repeat tests). This corroborates that successful repeating is not just an artifact of intense training but that blue-throated macaws can transfer the abstract "repeat rule" to untrained action. It also implies that an important aspect of self-representation has evolved in this avian group and might be adaptive, which is consistent with the complex socio-ecological environment of parrots and previous demonstrations of their complex cognition.

Complex nests but no use of tools: An investigation of problem solving in weaverbirds (Ploceidae).

Few avian species use tools in the wild. Yet, several birds build nests of great complexity and many aspects of tool use may also apply to nest building. It has long been hypothesised that tool use may select for specialised cognitive adaptations or even general cognitive skills. This might similarly pertain to species that build complex nests. In this study, we investigated the problem-solving capacity of a complex nest builder, a weaverbird species, in a foraging context that either required or did not require the use of tools. First, we tested the capacity of yellow-crowned bishops (Euplectes afer ssp. afer) to use a tool for retrieving an out-of-reach reward during three problem-solving tasks offering different nest/non-nest materials (Experiment 1). Next, subjects were confronted with two problem-solving tasks that required no tools (Experiment 2). No subject was able to use a tool in Experiment 1. However, 11 out of 12 subjects succeeded in using their beak in the first problem-solving task, and 9 in the second problem-solving task of Experiment 2. These results suggest that weaverbirds showed flexible problem-solving if the use of tools was not required.

First results of the Phase II SIMPLE dark matter search.

We report results of a 14.1 kg d measurement with 15 superheated droplet detectors of total active mass 0.208 kg, comprising the first stage of a 30 kg d Phase II experiment. In combination with the results of the neutron-spin sensitive XENON10 experiment, these results yield a limit of |a(p)|<0.32 for M(W)=50 GeV/c² on the spin-dependent sector of weakly interacting massive particle-nucleus interactions with a 50% reduction in the previously allowed region of the phase space, formerly defined by XENON, KIMS, and PICASSO. In the spin-independent sector, a limit of 2.3×10⁻5 pb at M(W)=45 GeV/c² is obtained.

Parrots Voluntarily Help Each Other to Obtain Food Rewards.

Helping others to obtain benefits, even at a cost to oneself, poses an evolutionary puzzle [1]. While kin selection explains such "selfless" acts among relatives, only reciprocity (paying back received favors) entails fitness benefits for unrelated individuals [2]. So far, experimental evidence for both prosocial helping (providing voluntary assistance for achieving an action-based goal) and reciprocity has been reported in a few mammals but no avian species [3]. In order to gain insights into the evolutionary origins of these behaviors, the capacity of non-mammalian species for prosociality and for reciprocity needs to be investigated. We tested two parrot species in an instrumental-helping paradigm involving "token transfer." Here, actors could provide tokens to their neighbor, who could exchange them with an experimenter for food. To verify whether the parrots understood the task's contingencies, we systematically varied the presence of a partner and the possibility for exchange. We found that African grey parrots voluntarily and spontaneously transferred tokens to conspecific partners, whereas significantly fewer transfers occurred in the control conditions. Transfers were affected by the strength of the dyads' affiliation and partially by the receivers' attention-getting behaviors. Furthermore, the birds reciprocated the help once the roles were reversed. Blue-headed macaws, in contrast, transferred hardly any tokens. Species differences in social tolerance might explain this discrepancy. These findings show that instrumental helping based on a prosocial attitude, accompanied but potentially not sustained by reciprocity, is present in parrots, suggesting that this capacity evolved convergently in this avian group and mammals.

Comparative cognition: Practical shortcomings and some potential ways forward.

The objectives in the field of comparative cognition are clear; efforts are devoted to revealing the selection pressures that shape the brains and cognitive abilities of different species and understanding cognitive processes in differently structured brains. However, our progress on reaching these objectives is slow, mostly because of several major practical challenges. In this review, we discuss 2 major shortcomings: (a) the poor systematics and low magnitude of the phylogenetic comparisons made, and (b) the weak comparability of the results caused by interfering species-specific confounding factors (perceptual, motivational, and morphological) alongside an insufficient level of standardisation of the methodologies. We propose a multiple-level comparative approach that emphasises the importance of achieving more direct comparisons within taxonomic groups at genus or family level as the first step before comparing between distantly related groups. We also encourage increasing interdisciplinary efforts to execute "team-science" approach in building a systematic and direct large-scale phylogenetic comparisons of bigger cognitive test batteries that produce reliable species-representative data. We finally revisit some existing suggestions that allow us to maximise standardisation while minimising species-specific confounding factors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Genetic monogamy despite frequent extrapair copulations in "strictly monogamous" wild jackdaws.

"Monogamy" refers to different components of pair exclusiveness: the social pair, sexual partners, and the genetic outcome of sexual encounters. Avian monogamy is usually defined socially or genetically, whereas quantifications of sexual behavior remain scarce. Jackdaws (Corvus monedula) are considered a rare example of strict monogamy in songbirds, with lifelong pair bonds and little genetic evidence for extrapair (EP) offspring. Yet jackdaw copulations, although accompanied by loud copulation calls, are rarely observed because they occur visually concealed inside nest cavities. Using full-day nest-box video surveillance and on-bird acoustic bio-logging, we directly observed jackdaw sexual behavior and compared it to the corresponding genetic outcome obtained via molecular parentage analysis. In the video-observed nests, we found genetic monogamy but frequently detected forced EP sexual behavior, accompanied by characteristic male copulation calls. We, thus, challenge the long-held notion of strict jackdaw monogamy at the sexual level. Our data suggest that male mate guarding and frequent intrapair copulations during the female fertile phase, as well as the forced nature of the copulations, could explain the absence of EP offspring. Because EP copulation behavior appeared to be costly for both sexes, we suggest that immediate fitness benefits are an unlikely explanation for its prevalence. Instead, sexual conflict and dominance effects could interact to shape the spatiotemporal pattern of EP sexual behavior in this species. Our results call for larger-scale investigations of jackdaw sexual behavior and parentage and highlight the importance of combining social, sexual, and genetic data sets for a more complete understanding of mating systems.

[Why Coronary CTA will affect the diagnosis and management of stable coronary artery disease?]. / Pourquoi l'angioscanner va transformer les habitudes dans le diagnostic et la prise en charge de la maladie coronaire stable?

Until recently, the optimal work-up of patients with stable coronary artery disease (CAD) was based on non-invasive functional tests. Coronary CTA (CCTA) now challenges this standard work-up due to its efficacy to exclude significant coronary artery disease. Current indications for CCTA include symptomatic patients with intermediate pre-test probability of CAD with altered ECG (LBBB, repolarization abnormalities) rendering stress tests useless or patients unable to achieve sustained stress effort, and patients with indeterminate or uninterpretable results on ischemic work-up. A more agressive position is to consider CCTA as the cornerstone of patient management because the limitations and pitfalls of non-invasive techniques open the door to an alternative diagnostic imaging technique, either alone, or in combination with other Imaging techniques after reorganizing the sequence of imaging work-up. Without dismissing the dogma of initial détection of CAD along with prognostic stratification using functional tests, the recent availability of a minimally invasive anatomical test in the management of patients with stress angina, given the known limitations of traditional tests, changes the standard work-up algorithms. This suggests that the diagnostic work-up of patients with CAD is likely to be modified to increase the rôle of CCTA.

In vivo immunomodulatory and antioxidant properties of nanoceria (nCeO2) in the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis.

Cerium nanoparticles (nCeO2) are increasingly utilized in a wide variety of industrial, environmental and biomedical applications, and are therefore expected to be released in the aquatic environment. Due to its peculiar redox properties, nCeO2 may present unique hazards to environmental and human health. Previous data showed that in the hemocytes of the marine bivalve Mytilus galloprovincialis, in vitro exposure to a particular type of nCeO2 (9 nm, characterized by negative ζ-potential, high H2O2 scavenging capacity and Ce3+/Ce4+ surface ratio) reduced basal ROS production, lysosomal membrane stability and phagocytic activity in the presence of hemolymph serum; the effects observed were partly ascribed to the formation of a SOD-protein corona in the hemolymph. In this work, the in vivo effects of this type of nCeO2 were investigated in mussels exposed to 100 µg/L nCeO2 for 96 h; several lysosomal, immune, inflammatory and antioxidant biomarkers were measured at cellular (hemocytes) and tissue (gills, digestive gland) level. Molecular responses were evaluated in hemocytes and digestive gland by determining expression of 11 selected genes related to known biological functions. The results show specific immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects of nCeO2 at different levels of biological organization in the absence of Cerium tissue accumulation. These data further support the redox mechanisms at the basis of the physiological effects of nCeO2. Finally, in order to evaluate the possible impact at the whole organism level, the effects of nCeO2 were evaluated in the 48 h embryotoxicity assay in a wide concentration range. However, nCeO2 exposure resulted in a small reduction in normal embryo development. Overall, the results demonstrate that in mussels nCeO2 can selectively modulate different physiological processes at different levels of biological organization.

Assessing African grey parrots' prosocial tendencies in a token choice paradigm.

Prosociality is defined as a voluntary, typically low-cost behaviour that benefits another individual. Social tolerance has been proposed as a potential driver for its evolution, both on the proximate and on the ultimate level. Parrots are an interesting species to study such other-regarding behaviours, given that they are highly social and stand out in terms of relative brain size and cognitive capacity. We tested eight African grey parrots in a dyadic prosocial choice test. They faced a choice between two different tokens, a prosocial (actor and partner rewarded) and a selfish (only actor rewarded) one. We found that the birds did not behave prosocially when one subject remained in the actor role; however, when roles were alternated, the birds' prosocial choices increased. The birds also seemed to reciprocate their partner's choices, given that a contingency between choices was observed. If the food provisioned to the partner was of higher quality than that the actor obtained, actors increased their willingness to provide food to their partner. Nonetheless, the control conditions suggest that the parrots did not fully understand the task's contingencies. In sum, African grey parrots show the potential for prosociality and reciprocity; however, considering their lack of understanding of the contingencies of the particular tasks used in this study, the underlying motivation for the observed behaviour remains to be addressed by future studies, in order to elucidate the phylogenetic distribution of prosociality further.