Grating-assisted-cylindrical-resonant-cavities interlayer coupler.

A grating-assisted-cylindrical-resonant-cavities (GARC) interlayer coupler made of Si/SiO2 is designed and simulated to achieve efficient and broadband interlayer coupling. This coupler consists of three cylindrical resonant cavities: two waveguide cavities in the horizontal direction and one cylindrical via cavity in the vertical direction. The resonant strengths of the two cylindrical waveguide cavities are enhanced by circular Bessel-function-defined gratings and distributed Bragg reflectors. The interlayer coupling efficiency of this Si/SiO2 GARC coupler is simulated as ηc=68%(-1.7 dB) for transverse electric polarization at 1.55 µm wavelength, which is generally higher than those of conventional rectangular silicon-on-insulator gratings with additional features such as reflectors, overlayers, chirped periods, dual gratings, etc. The GARC couplers are predicted to have favorable attributes compared to previous couplers, including wider operational bandwidth (δλ,1 dB=270 nm), larger tolerance to inplane misalignment (±2 µm for 1 dB extra loss), easier grating patterning (wider grating ridges), smaller footprint (20 µm in diameter), and more flexible choices of interlayer distances (2-5 µm). A sensitivity analysis is also provided as a guide in fabrication. In general, it is found that the vertical dimensions of the GARC couplers need to be carefully controlled while the horizontal dimensions are less critical.

Grating design for interlayer optical interconnection of in-plane waveguides: erratum.

Corrections to Eqs. (25) and (32) in our recent publication [Appl. Opt.55, 2601-2610 (2016).APOPAI0003-693510.1364/AO.55.002601] are presented in this erratum.

Rigorous coupled-wave analysis equivalent-index-slab method for analyzing 3D angular misalignment in interlayer grating couplers.

The interlayer waveguide grating coupling efficiencies under angular (rotational) misalignments are simulated using the 3D rigorous coupled-wave analysis (3D-RCWA) together with the RCWA equivalent-index-slab (RCWA-EIS) method. As examples of conical diffraction, rotations about the two coordinate axes, x and z, defined by the vectors [1 0 0] and [0 0 1], respectively, as well as an arbitrary axis, defined by the vector [2 2 1], are simulated for binary rectangular-groove gratings. The interlayer grating coupling efficiency is approximated by the product of the top- and bottom-grating diffraction efficiencies (DEs). It is found that the bottom-grating DEs decrease about 25% when the bottom grating is rotated ±0.1 rad (5.73°) about the z-axis. DEs slightly increase (5% to 10% depending on the grating structures) when the bottom grating is rotated ±0.1 rad about the x-axis. This is consistent with the diffraction behavior of an over-modulated grating. When the bottom grating is rotated about the vector [2 2 1], the change in DEs is asymmetric with a 100% decrease at a rotation angle -0.1 rad and a 67% decrease at a rotation angle +0.1 rad. The method is shown to be computationally efficient and numerically stable for grating structures with optimized parameters, and the resulting bottom-grating diffraction efficiencies demonstrate similar trends as those calculated by the 3D finite-difference time-domain simulations. The procedure presented can be directly used in the analysis and design of interlayer waveguide grating coupling for optical interconnects in high-density integrated electronics.

RCWA-EIS method for interlayer grating coupling.

The grating coupling efficiencies for interlayer connection (overlaid chips) were previously calculated using the new rigorous coupled-wave analysis equivalent-index-slab (RCWA-EIS) method. The chip-to-chip coupling efficiencies were determined for rectangular-groove (binary) gratings. In the present work, the search algorithms used in the RCWA-EIS method are optimized giving rise to improved definition of equivalent indices. Further, the versatility of the RCWA-EIS method is demonstrated by extending it to (nonbinary) parallelogramic gratings, sawtooth gratings, and volume gratings. The finite-difference time-domain method is used to verify the results. This demonstrates the flexibility of the RCWA-EIS method in analyzing arbitrary 1D gratings.

Grating design for interlayer optical interconnection of in-plane waveguides.

Interlayer grating-to-grating optical interconnect coupling efficiency is simulated and optimized using rigorous coupled-wave analysis (RCWA) for the case of binary rectangular-groove gratings. The "equivalent index slab (EIS)" concept is proposed to alleviate the numerical sensitivity problem inherent in the RCWA-leaky-wave approach, making the method applicable to any multilayer structure that has an arbitrary grating profile, large refractive-index differences, and a limited grating length. The method is easy to implement and computationally efficient and can provide optimal designs based on the system designer's need. To determine the viability of the RCWA-EIS approach, results are compared to those obtained using the finite-difference time-domain method, and an excellent agreement is found.

Myo-optogenetics: optogenetic stimulation and electrical recording in skeletal muscles.

Complex movements involve highly coordinated control of local muscle elements. Highly controlled perturbations of motor outputs can reveal insights into the neural control of movements. Here we introduce an optogenetic method, compatible with electromyography (EMG) recordings, to perturb muscles in transgenic mice. By expressing channelrhodopsin in muscle fibers, we achieved noninvasive, focal activation of orofacial muscles, enabling detailed examination of the mechanical properties of optogenetically evoked jaw muscle contractions. We demonstrated simultaneous EMG recording and optical stimulation, revealing the electrophysiological characteristics of optogenetically triggered muscle activity. Additionally, we applied optogenetic activation of muscles in physiologically and behaviorally relevant settings, mapping precise muscle actions and perturbing active behaviors. Our findings highlight the potential of muscle optogenetics to precisely manipulate muscle activity, offering a powerful tool for probing neuromuscular control systems and advancing our understanding of motor control.

High-performance Flexible Microelectrode Array with PEDOT:PSS Coated 3D Micro-cones for Electromyographic Recording.

High signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) electromyography (EMG) recordings are essential for identifying and analyzing single motor unit activity. While high-density electrodes allow for greater spatial resolution, the smaller electrode area translates to a higher impedance and lower SNR. In this study, we developed an implantable and flexible 3D microelectrode array (MEA) with low impedance that enables high-quality EMG recording. With polyimide micro-cones realized by standard photolithography process and PEDOT:PSS coating, this design can increase effective surface area by up to 250% and significantly improve electrical performance for electrode sites with various geometric surface areas, where the electrode impedance is at most improved by 99.3%. Acute EMG activity from mice was recorded by implanting the electrodes in vivo, and we were able to detect multiple individual motor units simultaneously and with high resolution ([Formula: see text]). The charge storage capacity was measured to be 34.2 mC/cm2, indicating suitability of the electrodes for stimulation applications as well.

Flexible Multielectrode Arrays With 2-D and 3-D Contacts for In Vivo Electromyography Recording.

We present a system for recording in vivo electromyographic (EMG) signals from songbirds using hybrid polyimide-polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) flexible multielectrode arrays (MEAs). 2-D electrodes with a diameter of 200, 125, and 50 µm and a center-to-center pitch of 300, 200, and 100 µm, respectively, were fabricated. 3-D MEAs were fabricated using a photoresist reflow process to obtain hemispherical domes utilized to form the 3-D electrodes. Biocompatibility and flexibility of the arrays were ensured by using polyimide and PDMS as the materials of choice for the arrays. EMG activity was recorded from the expiratory muscle group of anesthetized songbirds using the fabricated 2-D and 3-D arrays. Air pressure data were also recorded simultaneously from the air sac of the songbird. Together, EMG recordings and air pressure measurements can be used to characterize how the nervous system controls breathing and other motor behaviors. Such technologies can in turn provide unique insights into motor control in a range of species, including humans. An improvement of over 7× in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is observed with the utilization of 3-D MEAs in comparison to 2-D MEAs.

Fabrication and Characterization of 3D Multi-Electrode Array on Flexible Substrate for In Vivo EMG Recording from Expiratory Muscle of Songbird.

This work presents fabrication and characterization of flexible three-dimensional (3D) multi-electrode arrays (MEAs) capable of high signal-to-noise (SNR) electromyogram (EMG) recordings from the expiratory muscle of a songbird. The fabrication utilizes a photoresist reflow process to obtain 3D structures to serve as the electrodes. A polyimide base with a PDMS top insulation was utilized to ensure flexibility and biocompatibility of the fabricated 3D MEA devices. SNR measurements from the fabricated 3D electrode show up to a 7x improvement as compared to the 2D MEAs.

Designing Surface Chemistry of Silver Nanocrystals for Radio Frequency Circuit Applications.

We introduce solution-based, room temperature- and atmospheric pressure-processed silver nanocrystal (Ag NC)-based electrical circuits and interconnects for radio frequency (RF)/microwave frequency applications. We chemically designed the surface and interface states of Ag NC thin films to achieve high stability, dc and ac conductivity, and minimized RF loss through stepwise ligand exchange, shell coating, and surface cleaning. The chemical and structural properties of the circuits and interconnects affect the high-frequency electrical performance of Ag NC thin films, as confirmed by high-frequency electromagnetic field simulations. An all solution-based process is developed to build coplanar structures, in which Ag NC thin films are positioned at both sides of the substrates. In addition, we fabricated flexible transmission lines and broadband electrical circuits for resistors, interdigitated capacitors, spiral and omega-shaped inductors, and patch antennas with maximum inductance and capacitance values of 3 nH and 2.5 pF at frequencies up to 20 GHz. We believe that our approach will lead to a cost-effective realization of RF circuits and devices in which sensing and wireless communication capabilities are combined for internet-of-things applications.

Probing blood cell mechanics of hematologic processes at the single micron level.

Blood cells circulate in a dynamic fluidic environment, and during hematologic processes such as hemostasis, thrombosis, and inflammation, blood cells interact biophysically with a myriad of vascular matrices-blood clots and the subendothelial matrix. While it is known that adherent cells physiologically respond to the mechanical properties of their underlying matrices, how blood cells interact with their mechanical microenvironment of vascular matrices remains poorly understood. To that end, we developed microfluidic systems that achieve high fidelity, high resolution, single-micron PDMS features that mimic the physical geometries of vascular matrices. With these electron beam lithography (EBL)-based microsystems, the physical interactions of individual blood cells with the mechanical properties of the matrices can be directly visualized. We observe that the physical presence of the matrix, in and of itself, mediates hematologic processes of the three major blood cell types: platelets, erythrocytes, and leukocytes. First, we find that the physical presence of single micron micropillars creates a shear microgradient that is sufficient to cause rapid, localized platelet adhesion and aggregation that leads to complete microchannel occlusion; this response is enhanced with the presence of fibrinogen or collagen on the micropillar surface. Second, we begin to describe the heretofore unknown biophysical parameters for the formation of schistocytes, pathologic erythrocyte fragments associated with various thrombotic microangiopathies (poorly understood, yet life-threatening blood disorders associated with microvascular thrombosis). Finally, we observe that the physical interactions with a vascular matrix is sufficient to cause neutrophils to form procoagulant neutrophil extracellular trap (NET)-like structures. By combining electron beam lithography (EBL), photolithography, and soft lithography, we thus create microfluidic devices that provide novel insight into the response of blood cells to the mechanical microenvironment of vascular matrices and have promise as research-enabling and diagnostic platforms.