National trends in the concurrence of tuberculosis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Elucidation of the relationship between tuberculosis (TB) and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is needed to help predict the future course of these two epidemics. We examined nationwide trends in TB and AIDS occurring in the same individual. METHODS: Health departments in the 50 states, District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and Guam matched their TB and AIDS case registries to determine the number of persons diagnosed with both TB and AIDS. The number of AIDS cases, TB cases, AIDS cases that matched with a TB case on the TB registry, and TB cases that matched with an AIDS case on the AIDS registry were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Ga. Data were analyzed for the period from 1981 through 1991. The number of matched TB-AIDS cases was compared with a modeled estimate of excess TB cases during the period from 1985 through 1990. RESULTS: From 1981 through 1991 there were 11,299 AIDS cases that matched with a TB case on the TB registry, representing 5.1% (geographic variation, 0% to 9.3%) of AIDS cases. The TB cases that matched with an AIDS case on the AIDS registry represent 4.3% (geographic variation, 0% to 15.1%) of TB cases from 1981 through 1991. Since 1981, matched TB and AIDS cases increased yearly through 1990. When examined by year of AIDS report, the percentage of AIDS cases that matched with a TB case increased from 1981 to 1982 (1.9% to 5.1%), remained fairly constant from 1983 through 1987 (range, 4.0% to 4.7%), increased in 1988 (5.4%) after extrapulmonary TB was added to the AIDS case definition, and increased slightly through 1990 (5.8%). When examined by year of TB report, the percentage of TB cases that matched with an AIDS case increased steadily from 1981 through 1990 (0.1% to 9.5%). The calculated fraction of excess TB cases during the period from 1985 through 1990 that could be accounted for by identified TB-AIDS cases was 30%. CONCLUSION: The risk of TB or AIDS among persons already diagnosed with one disease is much higher than among the general population. The percentage of persons with TB who are also diagnosed with AIDS has been increasing rapidly. Human immunodeficiency virus-induced immunosuppression is an important contributor to the TB epidemic and probably accounts for a minimum of 30% of excess TB cases during the period from 1985 through 1990.

Tuberculosis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome--Florida.

Florida reported 1858 cases of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and 8455 cases of tuberculosis from January 1, 1981, through October 31, 1986. Of the patients with AIDS, 159 (8.6%) also had tuberculosis, and 154 (1.8%) of the patients with tuberculosis also had AIDS. Among patients with both diagnoses, tuberculosis was diagnosed before AIDS by more than 1 month in 50%, was diagnosed within 1 month before or 1 month after the diagnosis of AIDS in 30%, and was diagnosed more than 1 month after the AIDS diagnosis in 20%. Compared with patients with AIDS only, patients with both diagnoses were also more likely to be Haitian, black (other than Haitian), or Hispanic. Compared with patients with tuberculosis only, patients with both diagnoses were more likely to be younger, male, Haitian, black (other than Haitian), and Hispanic, have extrapulmonary tuberculosis and negative tuberculin skin tests, and have noncavitary chest roentgenograms. These data suggest that patients with AIDS may have an increased risk of tuberculosis and that patients with both diagnoses differ in important demographic and clinical characteristics from patients with AIDS only or tuberculosis only.

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and extrapulmonary tuberculosis in the United States.

Of 48,712 acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) cases reported to the Centers for Disease Control from October 1987 through March 1989, 1239 (2.5%) were diagnosed with extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis was diagnosed in 1013 (2.3%) of the US-born persons with AIDS, compared with 26 (8%) of the Mexican-born, 82 (13%) of the Haitian-born, and 4 (1%) of the Cuban-born. Patients with AIDS with and without extrapulmonary tuberculosis were similar in age, except that extrapulmonary tuberculosis was relatively rare in patients with AIDS under the age 10. Compared with white homosexual/bisexual men, black race (odds ratio, 2.7), intravenous drug use (odds ratio, 2.0), heterosexual AIDS transmission category (odds ratio, 1.9), and Hispanic ethnicity (odds ratio, 1.6) were independently associated with extrapulmonary tuberculosis. In 1988, extrapulmonary tuberculosis in persons known to be human immunodeficiency virus seropositive represented 21% of national extrapulmonary tuberculosis morbidity.

Tuberculosis in a correctional facility.

BACKGROUND: After the identification of five suspected cases of tuberculosis (TB) in a Nassau County (New York) jail during a 3-week period, an epidemiologic investigation was begun to document the number of cases of TB infection and disease associated with the jail, the characteristics of current or former inmates with TB disease, and the factors contributing to TB transmission in the jail. METHODS: The county TB register was matched against the inmate files of the jail. Medical records from hospitals, the health department, and the jail were then reviewed. All inmates in the jail were skin tested during a mass screening. RESULTS: From January 1, 1988, through March 16, 1990, of 205 TB cases in the county, 49 (24%) were associated with the jail. Forty of the cases occurred among current or former inmates, one in a corrections officer, and eight among community contacts of inmates. The 40 inmates with TB were predominantly nonwhite (75%), unmarried (80%) men (90%), with a median age of 32 years. Twenty-three (58%) had a history of injecting drug use, and 14 (35%) were known to be seropositive for the human immunodeficiency virus. Thirty (75%) of the inmates had culture-confirmed pulmonary TB. Five (29%) of 17 Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates had the same phage type and DNA fingerprint, which was consistent with transmission of infection within the jail. The mass screening revealed that 374 (20%) of 1855 inmates were tuberculin positive. CONCLUSIONS: Without an effective program of TB control, jails can act as reservoirs of disease for inmates and staff, and for the community into which the inmates are released.

Predictors of survival in HIV-infected tuberculosis patients.

OBJECTIVE: To ascertain predictors of survival in HIV-infected tuberculosis (TB) patients. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: New York City public hospital. PATIENTS: Fifty-four consecutive HIV-seropositive patients with newly diagnosed TB and no other AIDS-defining illnesses. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: CD4+ T-lymphocyte counts, completion of anti-TB therapy, repeat hospitalizations with TB, and survival. RESULTS: Forty-five (84%) of the 54 patients died a median of 15 months after TB diagnosis (range, 1-80 months), five (9%) were alive after a median of 81 months (range, 75-84 months), and four (7%) were lost to follow-up after a median of 42 months (range, 30-66 months). In univariate analyses, disseminated TB, intrathoracic adenopathy, oral candidiasis and CD4 count depletion were each associated with decreased survival. In a multivariate analysis, CD4 count depletion was the only independent predictor of decreased survival. Repeat hospitalization with TB occurred in 10 out of 15 patients who did not complete anti-TB therapy compared with one out of 21 patients who completed anti-TB therapy (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: The clinical presentation of TB and CD4 count at TB diagnosis are each predictive of survival in HIV-seropositive TB patients. The CD4 count is the only independent predictor of survival.

Outbreaks of group A streptococcal abscesses following diphtheria-tetanus toxoid-pertussis vaccination.

Two outbreaks of group A streptococcal abscesses following receipt of diphtheria-tetanus toxoid-pertussis (DTP) vaccine from different manufacturers were reported to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in 1982. The clustering of the immunization times of cases, the isolation of the same serotype of Streptococcus from all cases in each outbreak, and the absence of reported abscesses associated with receipt of the same lots of vaccine in other regions of the country, suggest that each outbreak was probably caused by contamination of a single 15-dose vial of vaccine. The preservative thimerosal was present within acceptable limits in unopened vials from the same lot of DTP vaccine in each outbreak. Challenge studies indicate that a strain of Streptococcus from one of the patients can survive up to 15 days in DTP vaccine at 4 degrees C. Contamination of vials during manufacturing would have required survival of streptococci for a minimum of 8 months. Preservatives in multidose vaccine vials do not prevent short-term bacterial contamination. Options to prevent further clusters of streptococcal abscesses are discussed. The only feasible and cost-effective preventive measure now available is careful attention to sterile technique when administering vaccine from multidose vials.

Measles outbreak in a pediatric practice: airborne transmission in an office setting.

In February 1981, a measles outbreak occurred in a pediatric practice in DeKalb County, GA. The source case, a 12-year-old boy vaccinated against measles at 11 1/2 months of age, was in the office for one hour on the second day of rash, primarily in a single examining room. On examination, he was noted to be coughing vigorously. Seven secondary cases of measles occurred due to exposure in the office. Four children had transient contact with the source patient as he entered or exited through the waiting room; only one of the four had face-to-face contact within 1 m of the source patient. The three other children who contracted measles were never in the same room with the source patient; one of the three arrived at the office one hour after the source patient had left. The risk of measles for unvaccinated infants (attack rate 80%, 4/5) was 10.8 times the risk for vaccinated children (attack rate 7%, 2/27) (P = .022, Fisher exact test, two-tailed). Airflow studies demonstrated that droplet nuclei generated in the examining room used by the source patient were dispersed throughout the entire office suite. Airborne spread of measles from a vigorously coughing child was the most likely mode of transmission. The outbreak supports the fact that measles virus when it becomes airborne can survive at least one hour. The rarity of reports of similar outbreaks suggests that airborne spread is unusual. Modern office design with tight insulation and a substantial proportion of recirculated ventilation may predispose to airborne transmission.

Health impact of measles vaccination in the United States.

As a result of intensive efforts to vaccinate children, measles and its attendant complications of encephalitis and death have declined more than 99% from the prevaccine era. Similarly, subacute sclerosing panencephalitis has declined markedly. Measles vaccine has been demonstrated to be extremely safe, as well as extremely effective. The health and resource benefits due to vaccination against measles during the first 20 years of vaccine licensure have been enormous. In this period it is estimated that vaccination against measles has prevented 52 million cases, 5,200 deaths, and 17,400 cases of mental retardation, achieving a net savings of $5.1 billion. These substantial health and resource benefits of measles vaccination will continue to accrue in the future.

Tuberculosis diagnosed at death in the United States.

From 1985 through 1988, 5.1 percent of TB cases reported in the United States were diagnosed at death. Differences in the proportions diagnosed at death by race/ethnicity, sex, and place of birth (United States vs foreign-born) were relatively small. The proportion of cases diagnosed at death increased with age, from 0.7 percent in patients less than 5 years old to 18.6 percent among patients 85 years and older. Only 26.0 percent of cases diagnosed alive were among those 65 years and older, but 60.3 percent of those diagnosed at death were in this age group. Eighteen percent of cases with miliary, meningeal and peritoneal TB were diagnosed at death, compared with 4.8 percent among those with pulmonary TB. These data indicate that TB too often remains unrecognized and that, to prevent continuing deaths from this curable disease, a high index of suspicion of TB remains important, particularly among the elderly and among persons with extrapulmonary sites of disease.

Completion of tuberculosis therapy for patients reported in the United States in 1993.

SETTING: The highest priority for tuberculosis (TB) control is to ensure patients complete therapy. However, standardized, detailed evaluation of national performance on completion of therapy in the United States has been lacking. Since 1982, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has had a program objective that at least 90% of TB cases complete therapy. Since 1986, the standard of practice for patients with drug-susceptible TB has been 6 months of therapy. OBJECTIVE: To determine completion of therapy rates and duration of therapy for US TB patients reported in 1993. DESIGN: Expanded TB surveillance data on all US TB patients reported to the CDC in 1993 with initial therapy of two or more drugs were analyzed with respect to completion and duration of therapy. RESULTS: A disposition (reason therapy stopped) was obtained on 98.7% of 23 489 treated patients. Overall, 91.2% of evaluable patients completed therapy. The overall completion rate at 12 months of therapy was 66.8%, and 90% completion was reached at 23 months. For patients with initially drug-susceptible TB, completion was 7.1% at 6 months, 66.5% at 12 months, and reached 90% at 22 months. CONCLUSION: While completion rates ultimately exceeded 90% nationwide, there was considerable delay in reaching this objective, especially in patients with drug-susceptible TB. It is critical that health departments and health care providers identify and remedy any deficiencies responsible for prolonged therapy.

Mycobacterial disease: epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

TB is common in the setting of HIV-induced immunosuppression, especially among demographic groups with a high background prevalence of tuberculous infection. It is often the first (sentinel) infectious disease to appear, extrapulmonary and disseminated disease is common, the chest x-ray picture is frequently atypical, and the tuberculin skin test is often falsely negative. It therefore requires a high index of suspicion and an aggressive diagnostic approach to avoid missing HIV-related tuberculous disease, which is communicable from man to man by the aerosol route and which appears to be highly treatable with conventional anti-TB drugs. Identification and INH prophylaxis of tuberculous-infected, HIV-seropositive persons is likely to be very important in the prevention of tuberculous disease. MAI is also a very common pathogen that frequently produces extrapulmonary and disseminated disease among patients with AIDS. In contrast to TB, AIDS-related MAI disease occurs more uniformly among the AIDS risk groups, occurs late among the HIV-related infections, and is not effectively treated with current drug regimens.

The epidemiology of tuberculosis in the United States. Implications for diagnosis and treatment.

Tuberculosis in the United States is primarily and increasingly a disease of minorities and the foreign-born. Tuberculosis among non-Hispanic whites is predominantly a disease of the elderly, whereas among minorities and the foreign-born, it is primarily concentrated in young adults. In the past few years, tuberculosis has increased among young adults, especially those who are black or Hispanic. Available data support the hypothesis that the spread of human immunodeficiency virus infection has increased the risk of tuberculosis. A substantial proportion of tuberculosis in the United States is potentially preventable through the administration of preventive therapy to high-risk populations.

Results of a 29-state survey of tuberculosis in nursing homes and correctional facilities.

A survey of the 15,379 cases of tuberculosis reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention by 29 State health departments in 1984 and 1985 revealed that 7.7 percent of the victims older than age 64 were living in a nursing home at the time of diagnosis and 1.8 percent between the ages of 15 and 64 were living in a correctional institution at the time of diagnosis. Incidence rates of tuberculosis for residents of nursing homes and for inmates of Federal and State prisons and local jails were estimated using denominators derived from institutional population counts provided by the National Center for Health Statistics and by the Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, and Bureau of Prisons. The aggregate tuberculosis incidence rate for nursing home residents in the 29 States was 1.8 times higher than the rate seen in elderly persons who were living in the community (95 percent confidence interval on the relative risk 1.64, 2.02). The aggregate tuberculosis incidence rate for inmates in correctional facilities was 3.9 times higher than the rate for persons of a similar age who were not incarcerated (95 percent confidence interval on the relative risk 3.35, 4.49). Strengths and limitations of the design and implications of the first survey of tuberculosis incidence, in a large number of States, among residents of nursing homes and correctional facilities are discussed.

Estimating HIV levels and trends among patients of tuberculosis clinics.

Symptomatic tuberculosis (TB) can occur as an opportunistic disease in immunosuppressed persons who are infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and who have been previously infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Increases in TB cases have occurred in areas which have reported large numbers of cases of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and a high proportion of these TB cases have been HIV seropositive. Therefore, increasing numbers of HIV-infected persons may be found in TB clinics and hospitals. HIV serologic surveys in TB clinics and hospitals providing clinical services to TB patients are needed to assess the local prevalence of HIV infection in TB patients and the consequent need for public health intervention to prevent further spread of HIV and TB infection. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC), in collaboration with State and local health departments, has initiated HIV surveillance of patients with confirmed and suspected TB in TB clinics and hospitals in the United States. Blinded (serologic test results not linked to identifiable persons) HIV seroprevalence surveys are conducted in sentinel TB clinics and hospitals that provide TB clinical services each year to obtain estimates of the level of HIV infection in TB patients and to follow trends in infection over time. Nonblinded (voluntary) surveys will also be conducted to evaluate behaviors that have placed TB patients at risk for or protected them against HIV infection. Data from these surveys will be used to target education and prevention and control programs for TB and HIV infection and to monitor changes in behavior in response to such programs.

Drug resistance among tuberculosis patients, New York City, 1991 and 1992.

The authors assessed drug susceptibility patterns among tuberculosis patients reported to the New York City Department of Health in the first quarters of 1991 and 1992. Resistance to one or more drugs was seen in 26 percent (137 divided by 520) in 1991 and 24 percent (122 divided by 517) in 1992. Resistance to isoniazid was seen in 22 percent and 19 percent of patients in 1991 and 1992, respectively; resistance to rifampin in 15 percent and 14 percent; and to both isoniazid and rifampin in 15 percent and 14 percent. Combined resistance to four first line drugs (isoniazid, rifampin, streptomycin, and ethambutol) was seen in 6 percent (1991) and 8 percent (1992). Patients with organisms resistant to both isoniazid and rifampin were as likely among U.S. born as among foreign born, and younger patients were more likely than older patients to have isoniazid and rifampin resistant organisms. These findings underscore the importance of obtaining susceptibility testing in all patients who have cultures positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

The need for epidemic intelligence.

The past decade has witnessed an unprecedented upturn in tuberculosis morbidity and outbreaks of difficult- to-treat and highly lethal multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. In the early 1990s, a national consensus developed among public health officials to define more comprehensively the problem, and in January 1993, expanded tuberculosis surveillance was implemented nationwide. Carefully selected epidemiologic and case management variables were added to the Report of Verified Case of Tuberculosis form. Information is collected on the health status and treatment of patients, including human immunodeficiency virus status, drug susceptibility test results, and the initial drug regimen. Completion of therapy and use of directly observed therapy are also monitored. The new surveillance system allows a comparison of the quality of care of patients in the public and private sectors. Additional epidemiologic variables include membership in high-risk groups (the homeless, residents of correctional or long-term care facilities, migrant workers, health care workers, and correctional employees) and substance abuse (injecting drug use, non-injecting drug use, and excess alcohol use). The additional information derived from expanded tuberculosis surveillance is crucial to optimal patient management, policy development, resource allocation, as well as program planning, implementation, and evaluation at Federal, State, and local levels.

Nosocomial transmission of tuberculosis associated with a draining abscess.

Nine secondary cases of tuberculosis and 59 tuberculin skin test conversions occurred after exposure to a hospitalized patient with a large tuberculous abscess of the hip and thigh. Among 442 tuberculin-negative hospital employees, the relative risk of skin test conversion associated with recalled exposure to the patient was 14.0 (95% confidence limits, 6.8, 28.7). Four of 5 surgical suite employees who assisted with incision and debridement of the abscess had skin test conversions, as did 85% of 33 employees on a general medical floor who recalled exposure to the patient and 30% of 20 intensive care unit employees who recalled exposure. The prevalence of tuberculin reactivity in visitors and other patients on two floors also showed a strong association with exposure to the patient. A high concentration of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the abscessed tissue, disturbance of the surface of liquid drainage from the abscess by irrigations and by the agitated behavior of the patient, and positive air pressure in the patient's room are factors that appear to have contributed to the high risk of tuberculosis transmission.

The epidemiology of tuberculosis in the United States.

Tuberculosis (TB) in the United States is primarily and increasingly a disease of minorities and the foreign-born. TB among non-Hispanic whites is predominantly a disease of the elderly, while among minorities and the foreign-born, it is primarily concentrated in young adults. In the past few years, TB has increased among young adults, especially those who are black or Hispanic. Available data support the hypothesis that the spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection has increased the risk of TB. A substantial proportion of TB in the United States is potentially preventable through the administration of preventive therapy to high-risk populations.