Effect of Metformin vs. Placebo in Combination with Insulin Analogues on Bone Markers P1NP and CTX in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

Preclinical studies have shown a potential osteoanabolic effect of metformin but human studies of how metformin affects bone turnover are few. A post hoc sub-study analysis of an 18-month multicenter, placebo-controlled, double-blinded trial in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), randomizing participants to metformin versus placebo both in combination with different insulin analogue regimens (Metformin + Insulin vs. Placebo + Insulin). Patients were not treatment naive at baseline, 83% had received metformin, 69% had received insulin, 57.5% had received the combination of metformin and insulin before entering the study. Bone formation and resorption were assessed by measuring, N-terminal propeptide of type I procollagen (P1NP) and C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX) at baseline and end of study. The influence of gender, age, smoking, body mass index (BMI), T2DM duration, glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), c-reactive protein (CRP) and insulin dosage was also included in the analyses. The levels of bone formation marker P1NP and bone resorption marker CTX increased significantly in both groups during the trial. P1NP increased less in the Metformin + Insulin compared to the placebo + insulin group (p = 0.001) (between group difference change), while the increases in CTX levels (p = 0.11) were not different. CRP was inversely associated (p = 0.012) and insulin dosage (p = 0.011) was positively related with change in P1NP levels. BMI (p = 0.002) and HbA1C (p = 0.037) were inversely associated with change in CTX levels. During 18 months of treatment with metformin or placebo, both in combination with insulin, bone turnover increased in both groups. But the pattern was different as the bone formation marker (P1NP) increased less during Metformin + Insulin treatment, while change in bone resorption (CTX) was not significantly different between the two groups.

Effects of 18-months metformin versus placebo in combination with three insulin regimens on RNA and DNA oxidation in individuals with type 2 diabetes: A post-hoc analysis of a randomized clinical trial.

Formation of reactive oxygen species has been linked to the development of diabetes complications. Treatment with metformin has been associated with a lower risk of developing diabetes complications, including when used in combination with insulin. Metformin inhibits Complex 1 in isolated mitochondria and thereby decreases the formation of reactive oxygen species. Thus, we post-hoc investigated the effect of metformin in combination with different insulin regimens on RNA and DNA oxidation in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Four hundred and fifteen individuals with type 2 diabetes were randomized (1:1) to blinded treatment with metformin (1,000 mg twice daily) versus placebo and to (1:1:1) open-label biphasic insulin, basal-bolus insulin, or basal insulin therapy in a 2 × 3 factorial design. RNA and DNA oxidation were determined at baseline and after 18 months measured as urinary excretions of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanosine (8-oxoGuo) and 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG), respectively. Urinary excretion of 8-oxoGuo changed by +7.1% (95% CI: 0.5% to 14.0%, P = 0.03) following metformin versus placebo, whereas changes in 8-oxodG were comparable between intervention groups. Biphasic insulin decreased urinary excretion of 8-oxoGuo (within-group: -9.6% (95% CI: -14.4% to -4.4%)) more than basal-bolus insulin (within-group: 5.2% (95% CI: -0.5% to 11.2%)), P = 0.0002 between groups, and basal insulin (within-group: 3.7% (95% CI: -2.0% to 9.7%)), P = 0.0007 between groups. Urinary excretion of 8-oxodG decreased more in the biphasic insulin group (within-group: -9.9% (95% CI: -14.4% to -5.2%)) than basal-bolus insulin (within group effect: -1.2% (95% CI: -6.1% to 3.9%)), P = 0.01 between groups, whereas no difference was observed compared with basal insulin. In conclusion, eighteen months of metformin treatment in addition to different insulin regimens increased RNA oxidation, but not DNA oxidation. Biphasic insulin decreased both RNA and DNA oxidation compared with other insulin regimens.

Further evidence that mutations in INS can be a rare cause of Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY).

BACKGROUND: Insulin gene (INS) mutations have recently been described as a common cause of permanent neonatal diabetes (PNDM) and a rare cause of diabetes diagnosed in childhood or adulthood. METHODS: INS was sequenced in 116 maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODYX) patients (n = 48 Danish and n = 68 Czech), 83 patients with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), 34 type 1 diabetic patients screened negative for glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD), and 96 glucose tolerant individuals. The control group was randomly selected from the population-based sampled Inter99 study. RESULTS: One novel heterozygous mutation c.17G>A, R6H, was identified in the pre-proinsulin gene (INS) in a Danish MODYX family. The proband was diagnosed at 20 years of age with mild diabetes and treated with diet and oral hypoglycaemic agent. Two other family members who carried the INS R6H were diagnosed with diabetes when 51 years old and with GDM when 27 years old, respectively. A fourth mutation carrier had normal glucose tolerance when 20 years old. Two carriers of INS R6H were also examined twice with an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) with 5 years interval. They both had a approximately 30% reduction in beta-cell function measured as insulinogenic index. In a Czech MODYX family a previously described R46Q mutation was found. The proband was diagnosed at 13 years of age and had been treated with insulin since onset of diabetes. Her mother and grandmother were diagnosed at 14 and 35 years of age, respectively, and were treated with oral hypoglycaemic agents and/or insulin. CONCLUSION: Mutations in INS can be a rare cause of MODY and we conclude that screening for mutations in INS should be recommended in MODYX patients.

A novel -192c/g mutation in the proximal P2 promoter of the hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 alpha gene (HNF4A) associates with late-onset diabetes.

Recently, it has been shown that mutations in the P2 promoter of the hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF)-4 alpha gene (HNF4A) cause maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY), while single nucleotide polymorphisms in this locus are associated with type 2 diabetes. In this study, we examined 1,189 bp of the P2 promoter and the associated exon 1D of HNF4A for variations associated with diabetes in 114 patients with type 2 diabetes, 72 MODYX probands, and 85 women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus. A -192c/g mutation was found in five patients. We screened 1,587 diabetic subjects and 4,812 glucose-tolerant subjects for the -192c/g mutation and identified 5 diabetic and 1 glucose-tolerant mutation carriers (P=0.004). Examination of the families showed that carriers of the -192c/g mutation had a significantly impaired glucose-stimulated insulin release and lower levels of serum total cholesterol compared with matched control subjects. Furthermore, the mutation disrupted the binding of an unidentified sequence-specific DNA binding complex present in human islet extracts. Also, two novel linked polymorphisms in the P2 promoter at positions -1107g/t and -858c/t were identified. These variants were not significantly associated with type 2 diabetes or any pre-diabetic traits. In conclusion, a rare, novel mutation that disrupts a protein binding site in the pancreatic HNF4A promoter associates with late-onset diabetes.

Metformin versus placebo in combination with insulin analogues in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus-the randomised, blinded Copenhagen Insulin and Metformin Therapy (CIMT) trial.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of metformin versus placebo both in combination with insulin analogue treatment on changes in carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) in patients with type 2 diabetes. DESIGN AND SETTING: Investigator-initiated, randomised, placebo-controlled trial with a 2 × 3 factorial design conducted at eight hospitals in Denmark. PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS: 412 participants with type 2 diabetes (glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) ≥ 7.5% (≥ 58 mmol/mol); body mass index >25 kg/m2) were in addition to open-labelled insulin treatment randomly assigned 1:1 to 18 months blinded metformin (1 g twice daily) versus placebo, aiming at an HbA1c ≤ 7.0% (≤ 53 mmol/mol). OUTCOMES: The primary outcome was change in the mean carotid IMT (a marker of subclinical cardiovascular disease). HbA1c, insulin dose, weight and hypoglycaemic and serious adverse events were other prespecified outcomes. RESULTS: Change in the mean carotid IMT did not differ significantly between the groups (between-group difference 0.012 mm (95% CI -0.003 to 0.026), p=0.11). HbA1c was more reduced in the metformin group (between-group difference -0.42% (95% CI -0.62% to -0.23%), p<0.001)), despite the significantly lower insulin dose at end of trial in the metformin group (1.04 IU/kg (95% CI 0.94 to 1.15)) compared with placebo (1.36 IU/kg (95% CI 1.23 to 1.51), p<0.001). The metformin group gained less weight (between-group difference -2.6 kg (95% CI -3.3 to -1.8), p<0.001). The groups did not differ with regard to number of patients with severe or non-severe hypoglycaemic or other serious adverse events, but the metformin group had more non-severe hypoglycaemic episodes (4347 vs 3161, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Metformin in combination with insulin did not reduce carotid IMT despite larger reduction in HbA1c, less weight gain, and smaller insulin dose compared with placebo plus insulin. However, the trial only reached 46% of the planned sample size and lack of power may therefore have affected our results. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT00657943; Results.

Effects of biphasic, basal-bolus or basal insulin analogue treatments on carotid intima-media thickness in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: the randomised Copenhagen Insulin and Metformin Therapy (CIMT) trial.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of 3 insulin analogue regimens on change in carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) in patients with type 2 diabetes. DESIGN AND SETTING: Investigator-initiated, randomised, placebo-controlled trial with a 2 × 3 factorial design, conducted at 8 hospitals in Denmark. PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS: Participants with type 2 diabetes (glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) ≥ 7.5% (≥ 58 mmol/mol), body mass index >25 kg/m(2)) were, in addition to metformin versus placebo, randomised to 18 months open-label biphasic insulin aspart 1-3 times daily (n=137) versus insulin aspart 3 times daily in combination with insulin detemir once daily (n=138) versus insulin detemir alone once daily (n=137), aiming at HbA1c ≤ 7.0% (≤ 53 mmol/mol). OUTCOMES: Primary outcome was change in mean carotid IMT (a marker of subclinical cardiovascular disease). HbA1c, insulin dose, weight, and hypoglycaemic and serious adverse events were other prespecified outcomes. RESULTS: Carotid IMT change did not differ between groups (biphasic -0.009 mm (95% CI -0.022 to 0.004), aspart+detemir 0.000 mm (95% CI -0.013 to 0.013), detemir -0.012 mm (95% CI -0.025 to 0.000)). HbA1c was more reduced with biphasic (-1.0% (95% CI -1.2 to -0.8)) compared with the aspart+detemir (-0.4% (95% CI -0.6 to -0.3)) and detemir (-0.3% (95% CI -0.4 to -0.1)) groups (p<0.001). Weight gain was higher in the biphasic (3.3 kg (95% CI 2.7 to 4.0) and aspart+detemir (3.2 kg (95% CI 2.6 to 3.9)) compared with the detemir group (1.9 kg (95% CI 1.3 to 2.6)). Insulin dose was higher with detemir (1.6 IU/kg/day (95% CI 1.4 to 1.8)) compared with biphasic (1.0 IU/kg/day (95% CI 0.9 to 1.1)) and aspart+detemir (1.1 IU/kg/day (95% CI 1.0 to 1.3)) (p<0.001). Number of participants with severe hypoglycaemia and serious adverse events did not differ. CONCLUSIONS: Carotid IMT change did not differ between 3 insulin regimens despite differences in HbA1c, weight gain and insulin doses. The trial only reached 46% of planned sample size and lack of power may therefore have affected our results. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT00657943.

Vitamin D, carotid intima-media thickness and bone structure in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Despite aggressive treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors individuals with type 2 diabetes (T2D) still have increased risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The primary aim of this study was to examine the cross-sectional association between total (25-hydroxy vitamin D (25(OH)D)) and risk of CVD in patients with T2D. Secondary objective was to examine the association between 25(OH)D and bone health. A Danish cohort of patients with T2D participating in a randomised clinical trial were analysed. In total 415 patients (68% men, age 60±9 years (mean±s.d.), duration of diabetes 12±6 years), including 294 patients (71%) treated with insulin. Carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) and arterial stiffness (carotid artery distensibility coefficient (DC) and Young's elastic modulus (YEM)) were measured by ultrasound scan as indicators of CVD. Bone health was assessed by bone mineral density and trabecular bone score measured by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. In this cohort, 214 patients (52%) were vitamin D deficient (25(OH)D <50 nmol/l). Carotid IMT was 0.793±0.137 mm, DC was 0.0030±0.001 mmHg, YEM was 2354±1038 mmHg and 13 (3%) of the patients were diagnosed with osteoporosis. A 25(OH)D level was not associated with carotid IMT or arterial stiffness (P>0.3) or bone health (P>0.6) after adjustment for CVD risk factors. In conclusion, 25(OH)D status was not associated with carotid IMT, arterial stiffness or bone health in this cohort of patients with T2D. To explore these associations and the association with other biomarkers further, multicentre studies with large numbers of patients are required.

Does DNA methylation of PPARGC1A influence insulin action in first degree relatives of patients with type 2 diabetes?

Epigenetics may play a role in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes (T2D), and increased DNA methylation of the metabolic master regulator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PPARGC1A) has been reported in muscle and pancreatic islets from T2D patients and in muscle from individuals at risk of T2D. This study aimed to investigate DNA promoter methylation and gene expression of PPARGC1A in skeletal muscle from first degree relatives (FDR) of T2D patients, and to determine the association with insulin action as well as the influence of family relation. We included 124 Danish FDR of T2D patients from 46 different families. Skeletal muscle biopsies were excised from vastus lateralis and insulin action was assessed by oral glucose tolerance tests. DNA methylation and mRNA expression levels were measured using bisulfite sequencing and quantitative real-time PCR, respectively. The average PPARGC1A methylation at four CpG sites situated 867-624 bp from the transcription start was associated with whole-body insulin sensitivity in a paradoxical positive manner (ß = 0.12, P = 0.03), supported by a borderline significant inverse correlation with fasting insulin levels (ß = -0.88, P = 0.06). Excluding individuals with prediabetes and overt diabetes did not affect the overall result. DNA promoter methylation was not associated with PPARGC1A gene expression. The familiality estimate of PPARGC1A gene expression was high (h(2) = 79±27% (h(2)±SE), P = 0.002), suggesting genetic regulation to play a role. No significant effect of familiality on DNA methylation was found. Taken together, increased DNA methylation of the PPARGC1A promoter is unlikely to play a major causal role for the development of insulin resistance in FDR of patients with T2D.

Genetic variation in GIPR influences the glucose and insulin responses to an oral glucose challenge.

Glucose levels 2 h after an oral glucose challenge are a clinical measure of glucose tolerance used in the diagnosis of type 2 diabetes. We report a meta-analysis of nine genome-wide association studies (n = 15,234 nondiabetic individuals) and a follow-up of 29 independent loci (n = 6,958-30,620). We identify variants at the GIPR locus associated with 2-h glucose level (rs10423928, beta (s.e.m.) = 0.09 (0.01) mmol/l per A allele, P = 2.0 x 10(-15)). The GIPR A-allele carriers also showed decreased insulin secretion (n = 22,492; insulinogenic index, P = 1.0 x 10(-17); ratio of insulin to glucose area under the curve, P = 1.3 x 10(-16)) and diminished incretin effect (n = 804; P = 4.3 x 10(-4)). We also identified variants at ADCY5 (rs2877716, P = 4.2 x 10(-16)), VPS13C (rs17271305, P = 4.1 x 10(-8)), GCKR (rs1260326, P = 7.1 x 10(-11)) and TCF7L2 (rs7903146, P = 4.2 x 10(-10)) associated with 2-h glucose. Of the three newly implicated loci (GIPR, ADCY5 and VPS13C), only ADCY5 was found to be associated with type 2 diabetes in collaborating studies (n = 35,869 cases, 89,798 controls, OR = 1.12, 95% CI 1.09-1.15, P = 4.8 x 10(-18)).