The role of metamemory and personality in episodic memory performance in older adults.

This study newly investigated the joint contribution of metamemory and personality (traits and facets) in explaining episodic memory (EM) performance in typically aging older adults. Forty-eight participants (age range: 64-75 years) completed a self-paced word list (SPWL) recall task, a metamemory questionnaire assessing perceived control and potential improvement (PCPI) and self-efficacy and satisfaction (SESA) regarding one's mental abilities (e.g., memory), and the Big-Five Questionnaire. Based on the SPWL encoding strategies reported, participants were then classified as effective (N = 20) or ineffective (N = 28) memory strategy users. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that a better SPWL performance was predicted by higher levels of PCPI, Scrupulousness and Dominance personality facets. Effective memory strategy users, then, showed higher SPWL performance and Dominance (Energy facet) than ineffective ones. These findings suggest that both specific metamemory processes and personality facets predict better EM performance in older adults. Moreover, personality dispositions relating to Dominance seem to characterize individuals adopting effective memory strategies to support EM performance. These results represent first evidence of the role of both metamemory and personality-facets-in explaining older adults' EM performance, which should thus be considered when assessing or training EM in old age.

Non-pharmacological interventions targeting sleep quality in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: This review aimed to examine the available evidence about non-pharmacological interventions (NPIs) aimed at improving sleep quality in older adults without insomnia or dementia.Methods: Studies on NPIs targeting older adults' sleep were searched in the PsycInfo, PubMed and Scopus databases, with no restriction on publication year up to September 2021. Studies on NPIs for older adults with no diagnosed sleep disorders were included, while those on pharmacological therapies and/or concerning pathological samples were excluded. The risk of bias was assessed using tools based on Joanna Briggs' criteria. The data extracted were meta-analyzed using random effects models for subgroups of NPIs.Results: Of the 1,893 records identified, 31 studies on NPIs (N = 2,224; range of mean ages: 60-78 years) were analyzed. All NPIs improved self-reported sleep quality, albeit to a different extent (physical activity: d=.97 - 95% CI=.62, 1.32-; psychological/psychoeducational, or NPIs that combined more than one sleep-targeting activity: d range: .21 to .97). Only the NPIs based on physical activity improved objectively-measured sleep, d=.31 (.04, .57). The methodological quality of most studies was limited.Conclusion: The most often used NPIs targeting sleep rely on physical activity and sensory stimulation with promising results on sleep quality for the former. More data are needed on psychological/psychoeducational NPIs and combined interventions in order to test their effectiveness. The methodological weaknesses of the available studies suggest they their findings should be interpreted with caution.Supplemental data for this article is available online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2022.2056879.

Efficacy of memory training interventions targeting metacognition for older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: This review examined the evidence about training interventions targeting metacognition in improving memory and cognitive performance, metacognitive functioning, and well-being in healthy older adults. METHODS: Studies were identified in the PsycInfo, PubMed, and Scopus databases. The risk of bias was assessed using tools based on the Joanna Briggs criteria. The data were meta-analyzed using random effects models for those training targeting metacognition alone (metacognitive training) or combined with memory strategy training (strategic metacognitive training). RESULTS: Out of the 3,487 articles first identified, 25 studies were eligible for our review (N = 1,768 older adults; mean age range: 64-85 years). Metacognitive training and strategic metacognitive training elicited improvements in memory (d = 0.52 [95% CI: 0.19; 0.84], and d = 0.44 [95% CI: 0.29; 0.58], respectively), metacognitive beliefs (d = 0.58 [95% CI: 0.23; 0.93], and d = 48 [95% CI: 0.28; 0.69], respectively), strategy use (d = 0.98 [95% CI: 0.46; 1.49] and 0.87 [95% CI: 0.14; 1.61], respectively), and memory self-efficacy (d = 0.08 [95% CI: -0.39; 0.56] and 0.55 [95% CI: 0.36; 0.75], respectively). Strategic metacognitive training also improved well-being (d = 0.21 [95% CI: 0.07; 0.35]). CONCLUSION: Interventions targeting metacognition (alone or combined with memory strategy training) have the potential to support older adults' memory and metacognitive functioning. The methodological quality of most studies on the topic was often limited, however. Furthermore, well-designed studies needed to confirm the benefits of such interventions in older age.

How emotions induced by reading influence sleep quality in young and older adults.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined whether emotions induced by reading before sleep influence sleep quality in young and older adults. METHOD: Sixty older adults (64-75 years) and 60 young adults (18-35 years) were randomly assigned to three conditions: positive reading, neutral reading, and control. The reading groups read a short story at bedtime, whereas the control group kept its routine. Participants completed measures of affective states, subjective sleep parameters, and self-reported sleep quality related to emotions over 7 consecutive days. RESULTS: Older adults reported much longer sleep latency and lower sleep efficiency than young adults. In both reading conditions, older adults reported reduced sleep latencies compared to the control group. In the positive reading condition, older adults reported an increased sleep duration compared to younger adults and the other conditions. Young and older adults in the positive condition showed better self-reported sleep quality than those in the neutral conditions, regardless of age. CONCLUSIONS: Reading at bedtime appears to reduce older adults' time to fall asleep and increase their sleep duration. Positive emotions induced by reading short stories at bedtime seem to be a sleep-promoting factor that improves bedtime and wake time in young and older adults.

Individual differences among older adults with mild and moderate dementia in social and emotional loneliness and their associations with cognitive and psychological functioning.

BACKGROUND: Loneliness is a major health issue among older adults. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between loneliness, in its social and emotional facets, and the cognitive (language), and behavioral/psychological functioning as well as quality of life (QoL) in people with mild and moderate dementia, i.e., considering dementia severity as an individual characteristic. METHODS: This cross-sectional study involved 58 people with mild dementia and 55 people with moderate dementia. Participants completed the Social and Emotional Loneliness scale, along with measures assessing their language skills, the frequency and severity of their behavioral and psychological symptoms, and their QoL. RESULTS: Socio-demographic characteristics and depression, but not loneliness or its social and emotional facets, contributed to explain participants' behavioral and psychological symptoms, regardless of dementia severity. Loneliness explained, though to a small extent (8% of variance), language skills in people with moderate dementia, with social loneliness only accounting for language skills (18% of variance) in this group. Loneliness also modestly accounted for dysphoria symptoms in both the mildly and moderately impaired (6% and 5% of variance, respectively) individuals with social loneliness predicting dysphoric mood in the former group only (7% of variance). Loneliness also explained, to a larger extent, QoL in both the mildly impaired and moderately impaired individuals (27% and 20% of variance, respectively), its social facet predicting QoL in the mildly impaired (30% of variance), and its emotional facet in the moderately impaired (21% of variance) group. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that loneliness and its facets have a clear impact on perceived QoL, and influence the language skills and dysphoria symptoms of people with dementia, to a degree that depends on dementia severity. The assessment of loneliness and its facets in people with dementia considering dementia severity, and the promotion of social inclusion to reduce it should be considered by professionals.

How Elderly People's Quality of Life Relates to Their Sleep Quality and Sleep-Related Beliefs.

OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND: Quality of life (QoL) is a broad multidimensional construct, which can be influenced by several factors across the lifespan, including sleep quality. The aim of this study was to examine the association between QoL (and its specific domains), objective and self-reported sleep quality, and subjective sleep-related factors (i.e., dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes about sleep, and metacognitive beliefs about sleeping difficulties) in healthy elderly people. PARTICIPANTS: Fifty healthy older adults (mean age = 70.40 years, SD = 7.43) participated in the study. METHODS: QoL was assessed using the World Health Organization's Quality of Life Assessment, BREF version (WHOQOL-BREF). Self-reported sleep quality and efficiency were measured with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and sleep diary. Dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes about sleep (DBAS), and metacognitive beliefs about sleeping difficulties (MCQ-I) (subjective sleep-related factors) were assessed with self-report questionnaires. Objective sleep quality and efficiency were measured using actigraphy over 7 days. RESULTS: Regression analyses showed that self-reported sleep efficiency and dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes about sleep explained 24% of the variance in global QoL. Dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes about sleep were the only significant predictor of QoL in the environmental domain. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these findings underscore the influence of sleep-related factors, and particularly dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes about sleep, along with sleep efficiency, on the perception of QoL in healthy older adults. These factors need to be considered in efforts to sustain QoL, in late adulthood at least.

Baseline capacities and motivation in executive control training of healthy older adults.

OBJECTIVES: Normal aging involves progressive prefrontal declines and impairments in executive control. This study aimed to examine the efficacy of an executive-control training focusing on working memory and inhibition, in healthy older adults, and to explore the role of individual differences in baseline capacities and motivation in explaining training gains. METHODS: Forty-four healthy older adults were randomly assigned to an experimental (training executive control) or active control group (training processing speed). Participants completed six online training sessions distributed across two weeks. Transfer effects to working memory (Operation Span test), response inhibition (Stop-Signal test), processing speed (Pattern Comparison) and reasoning (Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices and Cattell Culture Fair test) were evaluated. Furthermore, we explored individual differences in baseline capacities and assessed motivation during and after the intervention. RESULTS: The experimental group, but not the active control, showed significant transfer to response inhibition. Moreover, a general compensation effect was found: older adults with lower baseline capacities achieved higher levels of training improvement. Motivation was not related to training performance. CONCLUSION: Our results encourage the use of executive control training to improve cognitive functions, reveal the importance of individual differences in training-related gains, and provide further support for cognitive plasticity during healthy aging.

"When did you see it?" The effect of emotional valence on temporal source memory in aging.

Previous studies consistently showed age-related differences in temporal judgment and temporal memory. Importantly, emotional valence plays a crucial role in older adults' information processing. In this study, we examined the effects of emotions at the intersection between time and memory, analysing age-related differences in a temporal source memory task. Twenty-five younger adults (age range 18-35), 25 old adults (age range 65-74), and 25 old-old adults (age range 75-84) saw a series of emotional pictures in three sessions separated by a one-day rest period. In the fourth session, participants were asked to indicate in which session (1, 2, or 3) they saw each picture. Results showed that old-old adults tended to collocate negative pictures distant in time, while positive stimuli were remembered as more recent than real, compared to neutral pictures. To a lower extent, people over 65 showed the same pattern of results. In contrast, emotional valence did not affect younger adults' temporal positioning of stimuli. Current findings fit well with the Socio-Emotional Selectivity Theory's assumptions and extended the literature on the positivity effect to temporal source memory.

Mental imagery training in older adults: Which are benefits and individual predictors?

OBJECTIVES: Strategic memory training involves explicit instructions in mnemonic methods to improve recall. Mental imagery is considered among the most effective encoding strategies. The aim of the present study was to assess the benefits of a strategic memory training based on mental imagery (originally proposed by Carretti et al., 2007) and to further investigate its potentials. The study represents a replication in a new and independent cultural setting and features valuable methodological amendments, while it also examines individual predictors of training efficacy. DESIGN: A sample of 91 older volunteers (age 61-88), divided in training and control group, participated in the training. Specific training gain in the immediate word list recall (criterion task), as well as transfer effects on Letter-Number Sequencing (working memory [WM] task), long-term recall and recognition (LTM tasks) were tested at the pretest and at the posttest. RESULTS: Analysis of variance showed posttraining effects in immediate word recall and long-term verbal recall, but no effects in WM task and long-term recognition. Regression analysis showed age to be the only significant predictor in one task, the immediate word recall. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, proposed training can improve some aspects of memory performance by aiding in strategic use of mental imagery. Transfer to other tasks and contribution of individual predictors to training efficacy results limited, however. It seems that training benefits are evident when task similarity enables transfer-appropriate processing (as evidenced in gains of both recall tasks), while training efficacy relies on individual characteristics which contribute to the execution of some task components.

Supporting route learning in older adults: the role of imagery strategy.

OBJECTIVES: Route learning is an everyday spatial ability important to individuals' independent living, and is known to decline with age. This study aimed to investigate the benefit of using an imagery strategy to support route learning in young and older adults. METHODS: Forty young adults and 40 older adults learned a path from a video. Twenty of each age group were taught to use an imagery strategy (strategy groups [SGs]), while the others received no specific instructions (control groups [CGs]). Then participants were asked to recall the order and location of landmarks they had seen along the path (landmark ordering and locating tasks). RESULTS: Young adults recalled the order and location of landmarks better than older adults, and the SGs outperformed the CGs regardless of age. The Age group x Learning group interaction was only significant for the landmark locating task, with the young CG performing better than the older CG, while the older SG proved as good at recalling landmark locations as the young SG. Further, it was only among the older adults that the SG outperformed the CG. CONCLUSION: These findings newly suggest that using imagery helps to sustain older adults' route learning ability, especially in spatial recall tasks demanding the active manipulation of spatial information learnt, such as locating landmarks previously encountered while navigating a path. These results are discussed within the aging and spatial cognition frameworks.

Using the Walking Corsi test to explain age-related differences between young and older adults' rotation performance.

This study newly assessed visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) in young and older adults with an extended version of the backward Corsi Blocks Task (CBT): the backward Walking Corsi Test (WalCT). It involves recalling sequences of spatial locations while moving in an indoor space (2.5 × 3m) in which the CBT layout is recreated on the floor. The specific contribution of the backward WalCT (beyond that of the backward CBT) to explaining age-related effects on spatial rotation abilities was explored. Seventy young adults and 56 older adults performed the backward WalCT, classic VSWM tasks, self-assessments on pleasure in exploring and spatial anxiety, and mental rotation and perspective-taking tasks. Mediation models for the mental rotation and perspective-taking measures showed a direct age-related effect on both the backward WalCT and backward CBT, and an indirect one on the two spatial rotation abilities, mediated by the backward WalCT and - partly - the backward CBT. In particular, age-related effects on mental rotation were explained by the backward WalCT, while those on perspective-taking were explained by both the backward WalCT and backward CBT. The backward WalCT can be considered a measure suitable for assessing VSWM in older adults, which also explains age-related effects on mental rotation and perspective-taking performance.

Measuring global functioning in older adults with cognitive impairments using the Rasch model.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive and functional measures are often measured and interpreted separately during the clinical evaluation of patients with cognitive impairment. This can sometimes lead to a challenging interpretation when measures do not show concordance, especially after a clinical intervention. In this study, the development and evaluation of a new approach, using the Rasch model, that combines cognitive and functional measures in one single and more powerful measure (compared to stand-alone tests) to assess global functioning in older adults with cognitive impairment (including dementia) was presented. METHODS: Clinical data from 265 older adults' subjects diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment, or dementia, included: The Mini-mental state examination (MMSE), the Esame Neuropsicologico Breve (ENB) - a neuropsychological battery used in Italy-, the Activities of Daily Living (ADL), and the Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) questionnaires. RESULTS: Patients with severe cognitive impairment showed lower global functioning score compared to patients with moderate impairment. Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analyses were performed to determine sensitivity and specificity of the global functioning score resulting from the combined measure. Results showed that the global functioning score discriminates better between patients with severe and moderate cognitive impairment compared to the ENB, ADL, and IADL when considered separately. CONCLUSIONS: The Rasch model was able to combine cognitive and functional measures into a single score (global functioning score). All together, these results suggest that the diverse cognitive and functional measures can be considered part of one single dimension (global functioning) and that this dimension can be measured as a single construct and score. This study offers an alternative perspective for future development of instruments that would help clinicians in measuring global functioning in older adults' patients at different stages of cognitive impairments and different baseline level of performance.

Intelligence and working memory: evidence from administering the WAIS-IV to Italian adults and elderly.

The present study took advantage of data collected on more than 2100 Italian adult and elderly individuals during the standardization of the WAIS-IV to examine the relationship between working memory (WM) components and intelligence, and how age affects this relationship. Administering the WAIS-IV enabled us to obtain five different measures for assessing different aspects of WM, and a measure of General Ability (GA) strongly loading on the g-factor. The main results were as follows: (1) age-related impairments in WM are substantial, and they are partly similar and partly different for the various WM measures; (2) the relationship between the WM measures and the General Ability Index (GAI) varies, becoming stronger when the active control required by the WM task is higher; (3) comparing the WM-GAI relationships between different age groups reveals some similar patterns, as well as some specific effects that depend on the WM task considered.

Working memory training format in older adults: individual versus group sessions.

Working memory (WM) training has been shown to increase the performance of participants in WM tasks and in other cognitive abilities, but there has been no study comparing directly the impact of training format (individual vs. group) using the same protocol. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of the Borella et al. three session verbal WM training offered in two different formats on target and transfer tasks. This study was conducted in two waves. In the first wave, participants were randomized into individual training (n = 11) and individual control conditions (n = 15). In the second wave, participants were randomized into group training (n = 16) and group control conditions (n = 17). Training consisted of three sessions of WM exercises and participants in the active control condition responded to questionnaires during the same time. There was significant improvement for both training conditions at post-test and maintenance at follow-up for the target task, other WM tasks, processing speed, and executive functions tasks. The ANOVA results showed that the training gains did not depend on the WM training format. However, the effect size analyses suggested that this intervention can be more effective, at short term and follow-up, when provided individually. To conclude, this study showed that providing this training collectively or individually does not change the training benefits, which increases the possibilities of its use in different contexts.

Verbal working memory training in older adults: an investigation of dose response.

The WM training protocol proposed by Borella et al. found specific and transfer effects among seniors, however, the studies were carried out in the same socio-cultural context and variations in the procedure were never tested. The present study aimed at analyzing the efficacy of Borella et al.'s training, in terms of short and long-term benefits, in a different socio-cultural context (Study 1), and the effect of change in the training's length (duplicating the number of sessions (Study 2). Participants were randomly assigned to a trained group (N = 18 for Study 1, and N = 23 for Study 2) and active control group (N = 28 for Study 1, and N = 27 for Study 2), and evaluated at pre, post-test and six-month follow-up for verbal WM task (criterion task), and for visuospatial and verbal WM, inhibition, processing speed, executive function, and fluid intelligence measures (transfer tasks). The trained groups had higher performance in all tasks when compared with active control groups after training and at 6 month follow-up. The longer training (Study 2) generated similar gains as the original protocol, with some advantage in far transfer tasks at post-test and follow-up. Study limitations include the small sample sizes. In conclusion, this training was effective in a different socio-cultural context and adding three sessions to the protocol did not significantly change training impact.

Benefit of Practice of the Stroop Test in Young and Older Adults: Pattern of Gain and Impact of Educational Level.

Back-Ground/Study Context: The goal of this study was to examine how repeated practice of an inhibition test could improve performance in the test in young and older adults. In particular, we wished to explore whether the gains made during a practice program varied between age groups, and how educational level influenced practice-related gains in older adults. Thus, we tried to disentangle two hypotheses explaining the benefits of practice, namely compensation (greater gain by the lowest performers) and magnification (greater gain by the highest performers).Method: Thirty-three younger adults and 60 older adults were divided into two groups each: (1) Groups in the Practice condition had 10 sessions practicing different versions of Card C of the Stroop Test, (2) groups in the Control condition completed only the pretest and posttest.Results: Overall, results showed that the performance of both young and older adults improved more in the practice condition than in the control condition. The older adults benefited more from practice than the young adults, with earlier and more regular improvement over the 10 sessions. Moreover, the older adults with a higher educational level benefited most.Discussion: These findings seem to support both the compensation and the magnification hypotheses, depending on the variable (age or educational level).

Working Memory Training for Older Adults After Major Surgery: Benefits to Cognitive and Emotional Functioning.

OBJECTIVES: Cognitive and mood changes can affect postoperative recovery in hospitalized older adults undergoing major surgical procedures, but few studies have considered postoperative cognitive interventions to sustain such patients' cognitive functioning and mood. The aim of this pilot study was to assess the efficacy of working memory training in improving cognitive functioning and mood, or emotional functioning, in older adults undergoing major surgery. METHODS: Thirty-four older adults (from 64 to 75 years of age) hospitalized for partial or total arthroplasty of the knee were randomly assigned to either a trained group (N = 18) or an active control group (N = 16). The former received working memory training during the postoperative period, while the latter engaged in alternative activities. In addition to specific training gains in a working memory task similar to the one used in the training (criterion task), transfer effects to cognitive abilities (short- and long-term memory, and cognitive inhibition), and mood or emotional functioning (signs of depression or anxiety) were investigated. RESULTS: Immediately after the training, results showed a main effect of group (in favor of the trained group) in the criterion task, in one of the short-term memory measures, and in cognitive inhibition. In addition, only the trained group showed a decrease in depression and anxiety scores. CONCLUSION: The results of this pilot study suggest that cognitive training targeting working memory administered in the postoperative period after major surgery can sustain older adults' cognitive and emotional functioning, and especially their mood.

Improving Everyday Functioning in the Old-Old with Working Memory Training.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess gains related to working memory (WM) training, in the short and long term (9 months after the training), in abilities required in everyday life, and in cognitive measures in old-old adults (aged ≥ 75 years). METHODS: Thirty-two community-dwelling older adults (aged 75-85 years) were randomly assigned to a training or an active control group. In addition to testing for any specific gains in a WM task similar to the one used in the training (criterion task), we sought transfer effects to: 1) abilities involved in everyday life using objective performance-based tasks (the Everyday Problem Test [EPT] and the Timed Instrumental Activities of Daily Living [TIADL] scale; 2) tasks demanding the comprehension and recall of spatial information and pairing names with faces; and 3) a measure of inhibitory control, that is, recall errors (intrusion errors). RESULTS: Only the trained group showed specific gains in the criterion task, and in the TIADL in the short term. At follow-up, the trained group maintained gains in the criterion task, and showed transfer effects to everyday problem-solving (in the EPT), and in constructing spatial representations of an environment. The trained group also improved in a cognitive inhibition measure (intrusion errors) at follow-up. No such improvements were seen in the active control group. CONCLUSION: WM training may be a valid way to help old-old adults preserve at least some abilities related to everyday functioning.

Is working memory training in older adults sensitive to music?

Evidence in the literature suggests that listening to music can improve cognitive performance. The aim of the present study was to examine whether the short- and long-term gains of a working memory (WM) training in older adults could be enhanced by music listening-the Mozart's Sonata K448 and the Albinoni's Adagio in G minor-which differ in tempo and mode. Seventy-two healthy older adults (age range: 65-75 years) participated in the study. They were divided into four groups. At each training session, before starting the WM training activities, one group listened to Mozart (Mozart group, N = 19), one to Albinoni (Albinoni group, N = 19), one to white noise (White noise group, N = 16), while one served as an active control group involved in other activities and was not exposed to any music (active control group, N = 18). Specific training gains on a task like the one used in the training, and transfer effects on visuo-spatial abilities, executive function and reasoning measures were assessed. Irrespective of listening condition (Mozart, Albinoni, White noise), trained groups generally outperformed the control group. The White noise group never differed from the two music groups. However, the Albinoni group showed larger specific training gains in the criterion task at short-term and transfer effects in the reasoning task at both short-and long term compared to the Mozart group. Overall the present findings suggest caution when interpreting the effects of music before a WM training, and are discussed according to aging and music effect literature.

Categorization Working Memory Span Task: Validation study of two Brazilian alternate versions.

BACKGROUND: The Categorization Working Memory Span Task (CWMS task) is a complex working memory (WM) span test that has been used previously to assess age and individual differences in WM as well as the relationship between WM and complex aspects of cognition such as listening comprehension. Two alternate versions of the task have been developed to be used as outcome variables in WM training protocol, which mirrors the task involved in the CWMS task. OBJECTIVES: (1) To translate and adapt the CWMS task for Brazilian Portuguese; (2) to test the equivalence of its 2 alternate versions; (3) to examine temporal stability; (4) to examine the influence of age and schooling on CWMS task; (5) to establish its relationship with other tests of WM. METHODS: Eighty-one older adults completed version A, and 86 completed version B of the CWMS task. After 6 months, a subsample (n = 85) completed the same version of the task. RESULTS: Versions A and B of the task generated comparable scores. Both versions had adequate temporal stability, which was higher for the CWMS total recall, which is the classical variable in this task to represent WM performance, when compared to the other variables generated by the test. The CWMS task variables were moderately correlated with schooling and other cognitive tests (Mini Mental State Examination, Letter-Number Sequencing, Spatial Span Backward, Digit Span Forward). CONCLUSIONS: The 2 versions of the CWMS task were equivalent and stable temporally. The task was influenced by schooling and global cognition.