Relationships between matrix mineralization, oxidative metabolism, and mitochondrial structure during ATDC5 murine chondroprogenitor cell line differentiation.

The mechanistic relationships between the progression of growth chondrocyte differentiation, matrix mineralization, oxidative metabolism, and mitochondria content and structure were examined in the ATDC5 murine chondroprogenitor cell line. The progression of chondrocyte differentiation was associated with a statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) ~2-fold increase in oxidative phosphorylation. However, as matrix mineralization progressed, oxidative metabolism decreased. In the absence of mineralization, cartilage extracellular matrix mRNA expression for Col2a1, Aggrecan, and Col10a1 were statistically (p ≤ 0.05) ~2-3-fold greater than observed in mineralizing cultures. In contrast, BSP and Phex that are associated with promoting matrix mineralization showed statistically (p ≤ 0.05) higher ~2-4 expression, while FGF23 phosphate regulatory factor was significantly lower (~50%) in mineralizing cultures. Cultures induced to differentiate under both nonmineralizing and mineralizing media conditions showed statistically greater basal oxidative metabolism and ATP production. Maximal respiration and spare oxidative capacity were significantly elevated (p ≤ 0.05) in differentiated nonmineralizing cultures compared to those that mineralized. Increased oxidative metabolism was associated with both an increase in mitochondria volume per cell and mitochondria fusion, while mineralization diminished mitochondrial volume and appeared to be associated with fission. Undifferentiated and mineralized cells showed increased mitochondrial co-localization with the actin cytoskeletal. Examination of proteins associated with mitochondria fission and apoptosis and mitophagy, respectively, showed levels of immunological expression consistent with the increasing fission and apoptosis in mineralizing cultures. These results suggest that chondrocyte differentiation is associated with intracellular structural reorganization, promoting increased mitochondria content and fusion that enables increased oxidative metabolism. Mineralization, however, does not need energy derived from oxidative metabolism; rather, during mineralization, mitochondria appear to undergo fission and mitophagy. In summary, these studies show that as chondrocytes underwent hypertrophic differentiation, they increased oxidative metabolism, but as mineralization proceeds, metabolism decreased. Mitochondria structure also underwent a structural reorganization that was further supportive of their oxidative capacity as the chondrocytes progressed through their differentiation. Thus, the mitochondria first underwent fusion to support increased oxidative metabolism, then underwent fission during mineralization, facilitating their programed death.

Post natal expression of Prx1 labels appendicular restricted progenitor cell populations of multiple tissues.

Currently, there is no consensus whether there is a single or multiple postnatal stem cell population(s) that contribute to skeletal homeostasis and postnatal bone formation. A known population of cells that express Prx1 contributes to postnatal bone formation. Prx1 expression also connotes calvaria and appendicular tissues during embryonic development. A transgenic tamoxifen inducible Prx1 reporter mouse was used for lineage tracking, to characterize the postnatal contribution of Prx1 expressing cells in skeletal homeostasis and bone formation. Under homeostatic conditions Prx1 labeling gave rise to a transient yet rapid turnover cell population at the periosteal and endosteal surfaces, along muscle fibers, and within the medial layers of vessels both within the muscle and marrow compartments of the appendicular skeleton. Fracture and ectopic bone formation of both fore and hind limbs showed recruitment and expansion of Prx1-derived cells in newly formed bone tissues. Prx1 labeled cells were limited or absent at axial skeletal sites during both homeostasis and after induction of bone formation. Last, Prx1-derived cells differentiated into multiple cell lineages including vascular smooth muscle, adipose, cartilage, and bone cells. These results show that Prx1 expression retained its embryonic tissue specification and connotes a stem/progenitor cell populations of mesenchymal tissue progenitors.

Origin of Reparative Stem Cells in Fracture Healing.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The identity and functional roles of stem cell population(s) that contribute to fracture repair remains unclear. This review provides a brief history of mesenchymal stem cell (MSCs) and provides an updated view of the many stem/progenitor cell populations contributing to fracture repair. RECENT FINDINGS: Functional studies show MSCs are not the multipotential stem cell population that form cartilage and bone during fracture repair. Rather, multiple studies have confirmed the periosteum is the primary source of stem/progenitor cells for fracture repair. Newer work is also identifying other stem/progenitor cells that may also contribute to healing. Although the heterogenous periosteal cells migrate to the fracture site and contribute directly to callus formation, other cell populations are involved. Pericytes and bone marrow stromal cells are now thought of as key secretory centers that mostly coordinate the repair process. Other populations of stem/progenitor cells from the muscle and transdifferentiated chondroctyes may also contribute to repair, and their functional role is an area of active research.

Intrinsic Sex-Linked Variations in Osteogenic and Adipogenic Differentiation Potential of Bone Marrow Multipotent Stromal Cells.

Bone formation and aging are sexually dimorphic. Yet, definition of the intrinsic molecular differences between male and female multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) in bone is lacking. This study assessed sex-linked differences in MSC differentiation in 3-, 6-, and 9-month-old C57BL/6J mice. Analysis of tibiae showed that female mice had lower bone volume fraction and higher adipocyte content in the bone marrow compared to age-matched males. While both males and females lost bone mass in early aging, the rate of loss was higher in males. Similar expression of bone- and adipocyte-related genes was seen in males and females at 3 and 9 months, while at 6 months, females exhibited a twofold greater expression of these genes. Under osteogenic culture conditions, bone marrow MSCs from female 3- and 6-month-old mice expressed similar levels of bone-related genes, but significantly greater levels of adipocyte-related genes, than male MSCs. Female MSCs also responded to rosiglitazone-induced suppression of osteogenesis at a 5-fold lower (10 nM) concentration than male MSCs. Female MSCs grown in estrogen-stripped medium showed similar responses to rosiglitazone as MSCs grown in serum containing estrogen. MSCs from female mice that had undergone ovariectomy before sexual maturity also were sensitive to rosiglitazone-induced effects on osteogenesis. These results suggest that female MSCs are more sensitive to modulation of differentiation by PPARγ and that these differences are intrinsic to the sex of the animal from which the MSCs came. These results also may explain the sensitivity of women to the deleterious effects of rosiglitazone on bone.

Caveolae regulate Smad signaling as verified by novel imaging and system biology approaches.

The contribution of caveolae in Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2 (BMP2) activated Smad signaling was quantified using a system biology approach. BMP2 plays crucial roles during processes such as hematopoiesis, embryogenesis, and skeletal development. BMP2 signaling is tightly regulated on the plasma membrane by its receptors. The localization of BMP receptors in caveolae and endocytosis through clathrin-coated pits are thought to regulate the signaling; however the conclusions in the current literature are inconsistent. Therefore published literature was used to establish a mathematical model that was validated using confocal AFM (atomic force microscopy), confocal microscopy, and sucrose density centrifugation followed by Western blots, and reporter gene assays. The model and experiments confirmed that both caveolae and CCPs regulate the Smad-dependent signaling pathway, however caveolae are centers at the plasma membrane where receptor-ligand interaction is crucial, Smad phosphorylation occurs, and a high degree of Smad signaling is regulated. This demonstrates a role for caveolae that needs to be considered and further studied.

Prx1 cell subpopulations identified in various tissues with diverse quiescence and activation ability following fracture and BMP2 stimulation.

The expression of Prx1 has been used as a marker to define the skeletal stem cells (SSCs) populations found within the bone marrow and periosteum that contribute to bone regeneration. However, Prx1 expressing SSCs (Prx1-SSCs) are not restricted to the bone compartments, but are also located within the muscle and able to contribute to ectopic bone formation. Little is known however, about the mechanism(s) regulating Prx1-SSCs that reside in muscle and how they participate in bone regeneration. This study compared both the intrinsic and extrinsic factors of the periosteum and muscle derived Prx1-SSCs and analyzed their regulatory mechanisms of activation, proliferation, and skeletal differentiation. There was considerable transcriptomic heterogeneity in the Prx1-SSCs found in muscle or the periosteum however in vitro cells from both tissues showed tri-lineage (adipose, cartilage and bone) differentiation. At homeostasis, periosteal-derived Prx1 cells were proliferative and low levels of BMP2 were able to promote their differentiation, while the muscle-derived Prx1 cells were quiescent and refractory to comparable levels of BMP2 that promoted periosteal cell differentiation. The transplantation of Prx1-SCC from muscle and periosteum into either the same site from which they were isolated, or their reciprocal sites showed that periosteal cell transplanted onto the surface of bone tissues differentiated into bone and cartilage cells but was incapable of similar differentiation when transplanted into muscle. Prx1-SSCs from the muscle showed no ability to differentiate at either site of transplantation. Both fracture and ten times the BMP2 dose was needed to promote muscle-derived cells to rapidly enter the cell cycle as well as undergo skeletal cell differentiation. This study elucidates the diversity of the Prx1-SSC population showing that cells within different tissue sites are intrinsically different. While muscle tissue must have factors that promote Prx1-SSC to remain quiescent, either bone injury or high levels of BMP2 can activate these cells to both proliferate and undergo skeletal cell differentiation. Finally, these studies raise the possibility that muscle SSCs are potential target for skeletal repair and bone diseases.

Oxidative metabolism is impaired by phosphate deficiency during fracture healing and is mechanistically related to BMP induced chondrocyte differentiation.

Prior studies of acute phosphate restriction during the endochondral phase of fracture healing showed delayed chondrocyte differentiation was mechanistically linked to decreased bone morphogenetic protein signaling. In the present study, transcriptomic analysis of fracture callus gene expression in three strains of mice was used to identify differentially expressed (FDR = q ≤ 0.05) genes in response to phosphate (Pi) restriction. Ontology and pathway analysis of these genes showed that independent of genetic background, a Pi-deficient diet downregulated (p = 3.16 × 10-23) genes associated with mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation pathways as well as multiple other pathways of intermediate metabolism. Temporal clustering was used to identify co-regulation of these specific pathways. This analysis showed that specific Ox/Phos, tricarboxylic acid cycle, pyruvate dehydrogenase. Arginine, proline metabolism genes, and prolyl 4-hydroxylase were all co-regulated in response to dietary Pi restriction. The murine C3H10T½ mesenchymal stem cell line was used to assess the functional relationships between BMP2-induced chondrogenic differentiation, oxidative metabolism and extracellular matrix formation. BMP2-induced chondrogenic differentiation of C3H10T½ was carried out in culture media in the absence or presence of ascorbic acid, the necessary co-factor for proly hydroxylation, and in media with normal and 25 % phosphate levels. BMP2 treatment led to decreased proliferation, increased protein accumulation and increased collagen and aggrecan gene expression. Across all conditions, BMP2 increased total oxidative activity and ATP synthesis. Under all conditions, the presence of ascorbate further increased total protein accumulation, proly-hydroxylation and aggrecan gene expression, oxidative capacity and ATP production. Lower phosphate levels only diminished aggrecan gene expression with no other effects of metabolic activity being observed. These data suggest that dietary phosphate restriction controls endochondral growth in vivo indirectly through BMP signaling, which upregulates oxidative activity that is linked to overall protein production and collagen hydroxylation.

Bone morphogenetic protein receptor type Ia localization causes increased BMP2 signaling in mice exhibiting increased peak bone mass phenotype.

Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) is a growth factor that initiates osteoblast differentiation. Recent studies show that BMP2 signaling regulates bone mineral density (BMD). BMP2 interacts with BMP receptor type Ia (BMPRIa) and type II receptor leading to the activation of the Smad signaling pathway. BMPRIa must shuttle between distinct plasma membrane domains, enriched of Caveolin-1 alpha and Caveolin-1 beta isoforms, and receptor activation occurs in these domains. Yet it remains unknown whether the molecular mechanism that regulates BMP2 signaling is driving mineralization and BMD. Therefore, the B6.C3H-1-12 congenic mouse model with increased BMD and osteoblast mineralization was utilized in this study. Using the family image correlation spectroscopy, we determined if BMP2 led to a significant re-localization of BMPRIa to caveolae of the alpha/beta isoforms in bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) isolated from B6.C3H-1-12 mice compared to the C57BL/6J mice, which served as controls. The control, C57BL/6J mice, was selected due to only 4 Mb of chromosome 1 from the C3H/HeJ mouse was backcrossed to a C57BL/6J background. Using reporter gene assays, the B6.C3H-1-12 BMSCs responded to BMP2 with increased Smad activation. Furthermore, disrupting caveolae reduced the BMP2-induced Smad signaling in BMSCs isolated from B6.C3H-1-12 and C57BL/6J. This study suggests for the first time a regulatory mechanism of BMPRIa signaling at the plasma membrane of BMSCs that (i) associated with genetic differences in the distal Chromosome 1 segment carried by the B6.C3H-1-12 congenic and (ii) contributes to increase BMD of the B6.C3H-1-12 compared to the C57BL/6J control mice.

Initiation of BMP2 signaling in domains on the plasma membrane.

Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) is a potent growth factor crucial for cell fate determination. It directs the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells into osteoblasts, chondrocytes, adipocytes, and myocytes. Initiation of BMP2 signaling pathways occurs at the cell surface through type I and type II serine/threonine kinases housed in specific membrane domains such as caveolae enriched in the caveolin-1 beta isoform (CAV1ß, caveolae) and clathrin-coated pits (CCPs). In order for BMP2 to initiate Smad signaling it must bind to its receptors on the plasma membrane resulting in the phosphorylation of the BMP type Ia receptor (BMPRIa) followed by activation of Smad signaling. The current model suggests that the canonical BMP signaling pathway, Smad, occurs in CCPs. However, several recent studies suggested Smad signaling may occur outside of CCPs. Here, we determined; (i) The location of BMP2 binding to receptors localized in caveolae, CCPs, or outside of these domains using AFM and confocal microscopy. (ii) The location of phosphorylation of BMPRIa on the plasma membrane using membrane fractionation, and (iii) the effect of down regulation of caveolae on Smad signaling. Our data indicate that BMP2 binds with highest force to BMP receptors (BMPRs) localized in caveolae. BMPRIa is phosphorylated in caveolae and the disruption of caveolae-inhibited Smad signaling in the presence of BMP2. This suggests caveolae are necessary for the initiation of Smad signaling. We propose an extension of the current model of BMP2 signaling, in which the initiation of Smad signaling is mediated by BMPRs in caveolae.

Temporal and Quantitative Transcriptomic Differences Define Sexual Dimorphism in Murine Postnatal Bone Aging.

Time is a central element of the sexual dimorphic patterns of development, pathology, and aging of the skeleton. Because the transcriptome is a representation of the phenome, we hypothesized that both sex and sex-specific temporal, transcriptomic differences in bone tissues over an 18-month period would be informative to the underlying molecular processes that lead to postnatal sexual dimorphism. Regardless of age, sex-associated changes of the whole bone transcriptomes were primarily associated not only with bone but also vascular and connective tissue ontologies. A pattern-based approach used to screen the entire Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database against those that were sex-specific in bone identified two coordinately regulated gene sets: one related to high phosphate-induced aortic calcification and one induced by mechanical stimulation in bone. Temporal clustering of the transcriptome identified two skeletal tissue-associated, sex-specific patterns of gene expression. One set of genes, associated with skeletal patterning and morphology, showed peak expression earlier in females. The second set of genes, associated with coupled remodeling, had quantitatively higher expression in females and exhibited a broad peak between 3 to 12 months, concurrent with the animals' reproductive period. Results of phenome-level structural assessments of the tibia and vertebrae, and in vivo and in vitro analysis of cells having osteogenic potential, were consistent with the existence of functionally unique, skeletogenic cell populations that are separately responsible for appositional growth and intramedullary functions. These data suggest that skeletal sexual dimorphism arises through sex-specific, temporally different processes controlling morphometric growth and later coupled remodeling of the skeleton during the reproductive period of the animal. © 2021 The Authors. JBMR Plus published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Trapping of BMP receptors in distinct membrane domains inhibits their function in pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are pleiotrophic growth factors that influence diverse processes such as skeletal development, hematopoiesis, and neurogenesis. They play crucial roles in diseases such as pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). In PAH, mutants of the BMP type II receptors (BMPR2) were detected, and their functions were impaired during BMP signaling. It is thought that expression levels of these receptors determine the fate of BMP signaling, with low levels of expression leading to decreased Smad activation in PAH. However, our studies demonstrate, for the first time, that the localization of receptors on the plasma membrane, in this case BMPR2, was misdirected. Three BMPR2 mutants, D485G, N519K, and R899X, which are known to be involved in PAH, were chosen as our model system. Our results show that all three BMPR2 mutants decreased BMP-dependent Smad phosphorylation and Smad signaling. Although the three mutants reached the cell membrane and their expression was lower than that of BMPR2, they formed smaller clusters and associated differently with membrane domains, such as caveolae and clathrin-coated pits. The disruption of these domains restored the Smad signaling of D485G and N519K to the level of wild-type BMPR2, showing that these mutants were trapped in the domains, rather than just expressed at a lower level on the surface. Therefore, new treatment options for PAH should also target receptor localization, rather than just expression level.

Casein kinase 2 beta-subunit is a regulator of bone morphogenetic protein 2 signaling.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) play a crucial role during embryonic development and regulate processes as diverse as neurogenesis, skeletal formation, and hematopoesis. They signal through a hetero-oligomer complex of BMP receptors. Binding of the ligand to the receptors activates several pathways, including Smad and p38. BMP signaling is controlled in the extracellular space, the plasma membrane, and the intracellular space; however, the mechanism of receptor signaling at the plasma membrane and proteins that regulate this process still need to be identified. The experiments presented here identify the protein kinase casein kinase II (CK2) as a BMP receptor type Ia (BRIa) interacting protein. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer revealed that this interaction occurs at the plasma membrane. BMP2 stimulation of C2C12 cells leads to the release of CK2 from BRIa. Blocking this interaction with specific peptides that inhibit the binding sites for CK2 on BRIa demonstrated a redistribution of BRIa on the plasma membrane. Signaling was initiated once CK2 was released from BRIa, leading to the mineralization of C2C12 cells. These data suggest that CK2 is a negative regulator of BMP signaling and osteoblast differentiation.

An in vivo Comparison Study Between Strontium Nanoparticles and rhBMP2.

The osteoinductive property of strontium was repeatedly proven in the last decades. Compelling in vitro data demonstrated that strontium hydroxyapatite nanoparticles exert a dual action, by promoting osteoblasts-driven matrix secretion and inhibiting osteoclasts-driven matrix resorption. Recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 2 (rhBMP2) is a powerful osteoinductive biologic, used for the treatment of vertebral fractures and critically-sized bone defects. Although effective, the use of rhBMP2 has limitations due its recombinant morphogen nature. In this study, we examined the comparison between two osteoinductive agents: rhBMP2 and the innovative strontium-substituted hydroxyapatite nanoparticles. To test their effectiveness, we independently loaded Gelfoam sponges with the two osteoinductive agents and used the sponges as agent-carriers. Gelfoam are FDA-approved biodegradable medical devices used as delivery system for musculoskeletal defects. Their porous structure and spongy morphology make them attractive in orthopedic field. The abiotic characterization of the loaded sponges, involving ion release pattern and structure investigation, was followed by in vivo implantation onto the periosteum of healthy mice and comparison of the effects induced by each implant was performed. Abiotic analysis demonstrated that strontium was continuously released from the sponges over 28 days with a pattern similar to rhBMP2. Histological observations and gene expression analysis showed stronger endochondral ossification elicited by strontium compared to rhBMP2. Osteoclast activity was more inhibited by strontium than by rhBMP2. These results demonstrated the use of sponges loaded with strontium nanoparticles as potential bone grafts might provide better outcomes for complex fractures. Strontium nanoparticles are a novel and effective non-biologic treatment for bone injuries and can be used as novel powerful therapeutics for bone regeneration.

FRET reveals novel protein-receptor interaction of bone morphogenetic proteins receptors and adaptor protein 2 at the cell surface.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are involved with a wide range of processes including apoptosis, differentiation, and proliferation. Several different pathways such as Smad, p38, and PI3/Akt are activated by BMPs. Signaling is transduced by BMP receptors (BMPRs) of type I and type II that are serine/threonine kinase receptors. BMPRs shuttle between membrane domains such as caveolae enriched with caveolin-1 beta-isoform and caveolae of the caveolin-1 alpha/beta-isoforms. It is hypothesized that there are other membrane domains to which the receptors localize. We used immunoprecipitation, Western blots, image cross-correlation spectroscopy, and fluorescence resonance energy transfer to investigate the interaction of BMPRs with proteins in clathrin-coated pits (CCPs). Our data indicate that these domains are associated with at least two of the BMPRs: BRIa and BRII. For the first time, to our knowledge, we showed what we believe are specific interactions between BRIa and BRII with a key component of CCPs, adaptor protein 2. Further, disruption of CCPs resulted in increased BRIa aggregation at the cell surface and activation of the BMP pathway even in the absence of BMP2. Therefore, CCPs seem to function as a negative regulatory membrane domain for BMP pathway activation.

Earliest phases of chondrogenesis are dependent upon angiogenesis during ectopic bone formation in mice.

Endochondral ossification is the process where cartilage forms prior to ossification and in which new bone forms during both fracture healing and ectopic bone formation. Transitioning to ossification is a highly coordinated process between hypertrophic chondrocytes, vascular endothelial cells, osteoblasts and osteoclasts. A critical biological process that is central to the interactions of these various cell types is angiogenesis. Although it is well established that angiogenesis is crucial for fracture repair, less is known pertaining to the role of angiogenesis in ectopic bone formation. Furthermore, fracture repair models are complicated by extensive trauma, subsequent inflammatory responses and concurrent repair processes in multiple tissues. In order to more definitively characterize the relationship between angiogenesis and postnatal endochondral ossification, a model of ectopic bone formation was used. Human demineralized bone matrix (DBM) was implanted in immune-deficient mice (rag null (B6.129S7-Rag1tm1/MOM/J)) to induce ectopic bone. Inhibition of angiogenesis with either a small molecule (TNP-470) or a targeted biological (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor type 2 [VEGFR2] blocking antibody) prevented ectopic bone formation by 83% and 77%, respectively. Most striking was that the progression of chondrogenesis was halted during very early phases of chondrocyte differentiation between condensation and prehypertrophy (TNP-470) or the proliferative phase (VEGFR2 blockade) prior to hypertrophy, while osteoclast recruitment and resorption were almost completely inhibited. Our results demonstrate angiogenesis plays a developmental role in endochondral bone formation at a much earlier phase of chondrogenesis than suggested by prior findings.

Acute Phosphate Restriction Impairs Bone Formation and Increases Marrow Adipose Tissue in Growing Mice.

Phosphate plays a critical role in chondrocyte maturation and skeletal mineralization. Studies examining the consequences of dietary phosphate restriction in growing mice demonstrated not only the development of rickets, but also a dramatic decrease in bone accompanied by increased marrow adipose tissue (MAT). Thus studies were undertaken to determine the effects of dietary phosphate restriction on bone formation and bone marrow stromal cell (BMSC) differentiation. Acute phosphate restriction of 28-day-old mice profoundly inhibited bone formation within 48 hours. It also resulted in increased mRNA expression of the early osteolineage markers Sox9 and Runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2), accompanied by decreased expression of the late osteolineage markers Osterix and Osteocalcin in BMSCs and osteoblasts, suggesting that phosphate restriction arrests osteoblast differentiation between Runx2 and Osterix. Increased expression of PPARγ and CEBPα, key regulators of adipogenic differentiation, was observed within 1 week of dietary phosphate restriction and was followed by a 13-fold increase in MAT at 3 weeks of phosphate restriction. In vitro phosphate restriction did not alter BMSC osteogenic or adipogenic colony formation, implicating aberrant paracrine or endocrine signaling in the in vivo phenotype. Because BMP signaling regulates the transition between Runx2 and Osterix, this pathway was interrogated. A dramatic decrease in pSmad1/5/9 immunoreactivity was observed in the osteoblasts of phosphate-restricted mice on day 31 (d31) and d35. This was accompanied by attenuated expression of the BMP target genes Id1, KLF10, and Foxc2, the latter of which promotes osteogenic and angiogenic differentiation while impairing adipogenesis. A decrease in expression of the Notch target gene Hey1, a BMP-regulated gene that governs angiogenesis, was also observed in phosphate-restricted mice, in association with decreased metaphyseal marrow vasculature. Whereas circulating phosphate levels are known to control growth plate maturation and skeletal mineralization, these studies reveal novel consequences of phosphate restriction in the regulation of bone formation and osteoblast differentiation. © 2016 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Mouse models of bone healing: fracture, marrow ablation, and distraction osteogenesis.

Three commonly used murine surgical models of bone healing [closed fracture with intramedullary fixation, distraction osteogenesis (DO), and marrow ablation by reaming] are presented. Detailed surgical protocols for each model are outlined. The nature of the regenerative processes and the types of research questions that may be addressed with these models are briefly outlined. The relative strengths and weaknesses of these models are compared to a number of other surgical models that are used to address similar research questions.

Overview of biological mechanisms and applications of three murine models of bone repair: closed fracture with intramedullary fixation, distraction osteogenesis, and marrow ablation by reaming.

Fractures are one of the most common large-organ, traumatic injuries in humans, and osteoporosis-related fractures are the fastest growing health care problem of aging. Elective orthopedic surgeries of the bones and joints also represent some of most common forms of elective surgeries performed. Optimal repair of skeletal tissues is necessary for successful outcomes of these many different orthopedic surgical treatments. Research focused on post-natal skeletal repair is therefore of immense clinical importance and of particular relevance in situations in which bone tissue healing is compromised due to the extent of tissue trauma or specific medical co-morbidities. Three commonly used murine surgical models of bone healing, closed fracture with intramedullary fixation, distraction osteogenesis (DO), and marrow ablation by reaming, are presented. The biological aspects of these models are contrasted and the types of research questions that may be addressed with these models are presented.

Systemic injection of CK2.3, a novel peptide acting downstream of bone morphogenetic protein receptor BMPRIa, leads to increased trabecular bone mass.

Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2 (BMP2) regulates bone integrity by driving both osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis. However, BMP2 as a therapeutic has significant drawbacks. We have designed a novel peptide CK2.3 that blocks the interaction of Casein Kinase 2 (CK2) with Bone Morphogenetic Protein Receptor type Ia (BMPRIa), thereby activating BMP signaling pathways in the absence of ligand. Here, we show that CK2.3 induced mineralization in primary osteoblast cultures isolated from calvaria and bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) of 8 week old mice. Further, systemic tail vein injections of CK2.3 in 8 week old mice resulted in increased bone mineral density (BMD) and mineral apposition rate (MAR). In situ immunohistochemistry of the femur found that CK2.3 injection induced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK), but not Smad in osteocytes and osteoblasts, suggesting that CK2.3 signaling occurred through Smad independent pathway. Finally mice injected with CK2.3 exhibited decreased osteoclast differentiation and osteoclast activity. These data indicate that the novel mimetic peptide CK2.3 activated BMPRIa downstream signaling to enhance bone formation without the increase in osteoclast activity that accompanies BMP 2 stimulation.

Inhibition of CK2 binding to BMPRIa induces C2C12 differentiation into osteoblasts and adipocytes.

BMP2 is a growth factor that regulates the cell fate of mesenchymal stem cells into osteoblast and adipocytes. However, the detailed signaling pathways and mechanism are unknown. We previously reported a new interaction of Casein kinase II (CK2) with the BMP receptor type-Ia (BMPRIa) and demonstrated using mimetic peptides CK2.1, CK2.2 and CK2.3 that the release of CK2 from BMPRIa activates Smad signaling and osteogenesis. Previously, we showed that mutation of these CK2 sites on BMPRIa (MCK2.1 (476S-A), MCK2.2 (324S-A) and MCK2.3 (214S-A)) induced osteogenesis. However, one mutant MCK2.1 induced osteogenesis similar to overexpression of wild type BMPRIa, suggesting that the effect of this mutant on mineralization was due to overexpression. In this paper we investigated the signaling pathways involved in the CK2-BMPRIa mediated osteogenesis and identified a new signaling pathway activating adipogenesis dependent on the BMPRIa and CK2 association. Further the mechanism for adipogenesis and osteogenesis is specific to the CK2 interaction site on BMPRIa. In detail our data show that overexpression of MCK2.2 induced osteogenesis was dependent on Caveolin-1 (Cav1) and the activation of the Smad and mTor pathways, while overexpression of MCK2.3 induced osteogenesis was independent of Caveolin-1 without activation of Smad pathway. However, MCK2.3 induced osteogenesis via the MEK pathway. The adipogenesis induced by the overexpression of MCK2.2 in C2C12 cells was dependent on the p38 and ERK pathways as well as Caveolin-1. These data suggest that signaling through BMPRIa used two different signaling pathways to induce osteogenesis dependent on CK2. Additionally the data supports a signaling pathway initiated in caveolae and one outside of caveolae to induce mineralization. Moreover, they reveal the signaling pathway of BMPRIa mediated adipogenesis.