Educational inequalities and premature mortality: the Cuba Prospective Study.

BACKGROUND: Although socioeconomic status is a major determinant of premature mortality in many populations, the impact of social inequalities on premature mortality in Cuba, a country with universal education and health care, remains unclear. We aimed to assess the association between educational level and premature adult mortality in Cuba. METHODS: The Cuba Prospective Study (a cohort study) enrolled 146 556 adults aged 30 years and older from the general population in five provinces from Jan 1, 1996, to Nov 24, 2002. Participants were followed up until Jan 1, 2017, for cause-specific mortality. Deaths were identified through linkage to the Cuban Public Health Ministry's national mortality records. Cox regression models yielded rate ratios (RRs) for the effect of educational level (a commonly used measure for social status) on mortality at ages 35-74 years, with assessment for the mediating effects of smoking, alcohol consumption, and BMI. FINDINGS: A total of 127 273 participants aged 35-74 years were included in the analyses. There was a strong inverse association between educational level and premature mortality. Compared with a university education, men who did not complete primary education had an approximately 60% higher risk of premature mortality (RR 1·55, 95% CI 1·40-1·72), while the risk was approximately doubled in women (1·96, 1·81-2·13). Overall, 28% of premature deaths could be attributed to lower education levels. Excess mortality in women was primarily due to vascular disease, while vascular disease and cancer were equally important in men. 31% of the association with education in men and 18% in women could be explained by common modifiable risk factors, with smoking having the largest effect. INTERPRETATION: This study highlights the value of understanding the determinants of health inequalities in different populations. Although many major determinants lie outside the health system in Cuba, this study has identified the diseases and risk factors that require targeted public health interventions, particularly smoking. FUNDING: UK Medical Research Council, British Heart Foundation, Cancer Research UK, CDC Foundation (with support from Amgen).

Alcohol consumption and cause-specific mortality in Cuba: prospective study of 120 623 adults.

BACKGROUND: The associations of cause-specific mortality with alcohol consumption have been studied mainly in higher-income countries. We relate alcohol consumption to mortality in Cuba. METHODS: In 1996-2002, 146 556 adults were recruited into a prospective study from the general population in five areas of Cuba. Participants were interviewed, measured and followed up by electronic linkage to national death registries until January 1, 2017. After excluding all with missing data or chronic disease at recruitment, Cox regression (adjusted for age, sex, province, education, and smoking) was used to relate mortality rate ratios (RRs) at ages 35-79 years to alcohol consumption. RRs were corrected for long-term variability in alcohol consumption using repeat measures among 20 593 participants resurveyed in 2006-08. FINDINGS: After exclusions, there were 120 623 participants aged 35-79 years (mean age 52 [SD 12]; 67 694 [56%] women). At recruitment, 22 670 (43%) men and 9490 (14%) women were current alcohol drinkers, with 15 433 (29%) men and 3054 (5%) women drinking at least weekly; most alcohol consumption was from rum. All-cause mortality was positively and continuously associated with weekly alcohol consumption: each additional 35cl bottle of rum per week (110g of pure alcohol) was associated with ∼10% higher risk of all-cause mortality (RR 1.08 [95%CI 1.05-1.11]). The major causes of excess mortality in weekly drinkers were cancer, vascular disease, and external causes. Non-drinkers had ∼10% higher risk (RR 1.11 [1.09-1.14]) of all-cause mortality than those in the lowest category of weekly alcohol consumption (<1 bottle/week), but this association was almost completely attenuated on exclusion of early follow-up. INTERPRETATION: In this large prospective study in Cuba, weekly alcohol consumption was continuously related to premature mortality. Reverse causality is likely to account for much of the apparent excess risk among non-drinkers. The findings support limits to alcohol consumption that are lower than present recommendations in Cuba. FUNDING: Medical Research Council, British Heart Foundation, Cancer Research UK, CDC Foundation (with support from Amgen).

Implementation of a community-based hypertension control program in Matanzas, Cuba.

Increased blood pressure is a leading risk factor for death worldwide, and improving the control of hypertension is a major health goal to reduce non-communicable disease. Thus, in 2016, as part of a regional effort between the Pan American Health Organization and Cuban Ministry of Public Health to reduce cardiovascular risk and disease, a community demonstration project was implemented to enhance hypertension control. The intervention project was in a population of 25 868 people served by the Carlos Verdugo Martínez Polyclinic in Matanzas, Cuba. The project implemented interventions currently recommended in the World Health Organization HEARTS modules, including a standardized clinical training program with certification for blood pressure measurement, routine screening for hypertension in clinics and in the community, a simple directive pharmacologic treatment algorithm, and a registry with performance reporting and feedback. Qualitative and quantitative program monitoring and evaluation was established. In a 2010 national survey, the prevalence of hypertension and the rate of hypertension control were estimated to be 31% and 36%, respectively. Following less than one year of the full implementation of the program, the prevalence of hypertension, proportion of the hypertensive population registered as having hypertension, proportion of those drug-treated who were controlled, and estimated population rate of control were 30%, 90%, 68%, and 58%, respectively. Based on these positive results, the program has been expanded to include another demonstration program initiated in a second region. In addition, preliminary efforts to disseminate and scale-up aspects of the program to the full Cuban population have started.

Burden of hypertension and associated risks for cardiovascular mortality in Cuba: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: In Cuba, hypertension control in primary care has been prioritised as a cost-effective means of addressing premature death from cardiovascular disease. However, there is little evidence from large-scale studies on the prevalence and management of hypertension in Cuba, and no direct evidence of the expected benefit of such efforts on cardiovascular mortality. METHODS: In a prospective cohort study, adults in the general population identified via local family medical practices were interviewed between Jan 1, 1996, and Nov 24, 2002, in five areas of Cuba, and a subset of participants were resurveyed between July 14, 2006, and Oct 19, 2008, in one area. During household visits, blood pressure was measured and information obtained on diagnosis and treatment of hypertension. We calculated the prevalence of hypertension (systolic blood pressure ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mm Hg, or receiving treatment for hypertension) and the proportion of people with hypertension in whom it was diagnosed, treated, and controlled (systolic blood pressure <140 mm Hg, diastolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg). Deaths were identified through linkage by national identification numbers to the Cuban Public Health Ministry records, to Dec 31, 2016. We used Cox regression analysis to compare cardiovascular mortality between participants with versus without uncontrolled hypertension. Rate ratios (RRs) were used to estimate the fraction of cardiovascular deaths attributable to hypertension. FINDINGS: 146 556 participants were interviewed in the baseline survey in 1996-2002 and 24 345 were interviewed in the resurvey in 2006-08. After exclusion for incomplete data and age outside the range of interest, 136 111 respondents aged 35-79 years (mean age 54 [SD 12] years; 75 947 [56%] women, 60 164 [44%] men) were eligible for inclusion in the analyses. 34% of participants had hypertension. Among these, 67% had a diagnosis of hypertension. 76% of participants with diagnosed hypertension were receiving treatment and blood pressure was controlled in 36% of those people. During 1·7 million person-years of follow-up there were 5707 cardiovascular deaths. In the age groups 35-59, 60-69, and 70-79 years, uncontrolled hypertension at baseline was associated with RRs of 2·15 (95% CI 1·88-2·46), 1·86 (1·69-2·05), and 1·41 (1·32-1·52), respectively, and accounted for around 20% of premature cardiovascular deaths. INTERPRETATION: In this Cuban population, a third of people had hypertension. Although levels of hypertension diagnosis and treatment were commensurate with those in some high-income countries, the proportion of participants whose blood pressure was controlled was low. As well as reducing hypertension prevalence, improvement in blood pressure control among people with diagnosed hypertension is required to prevent premature cardiovascular deaths in Cuba. FUNDING: Medical Research Council, British Heart Foundation, Cancer Research UK.

Análisis de mortalidad y comorbilidad por Covid-19 en Cuba / Analysis of mortality and comorbidity due to covid-19 in Cuba

Introducción: Las comorbilidades se han relacionado con mayor riesgo de contraer COVID-19, de tener mala evolución y de mortalidad. Objetivo: Identificar factores de riesgo asociados a la mortalidad al final de la estadía hospitalaria de los pacientes con diagnóstico de COVID-19 en Cuba. Métodos: Investigación retrospectiva, de la totalidad de pacientes confirmados con COVID-19 en Cuba, con 18 años o más, diagnosticados entre el 11 de marzo al 15 de octubre de 2020. La fuente de información fue la base de datos nacional del Ministerio de Salud Pública. Se recopilaron edad, sexo y comorbilidades. Clasificados en recuperados y fallecidos. Estudio analítico de factores y comorbilidades asociadas a la mortalidad. Resultados: Se analizaron 5 490 pacientes (97,7 por ciento recuperados vs 2,3 por ciento fallecidos). Los fallecidos tenían significativamente más edad (72,8 vs 44,5 años). Las comorbilidades más frecuentes en fallecidos fueron hipertensión (47,6 por ciento vs 7,8 por ciento), diabetes (27,4 por ciento vs 2,6 por ciento), cardiopatía isquémica (14,5 por ciento vs 0,9 por ciento), enfermedad renal crónica (11,3 por ciento vs 0,3 por ciento) y EPOC (11,3 por ciento vs 0,5 por ciento). Se encontró riesgo independiente de mortalidad a la edad de 60 años o más (OR:10,090, IC 95 por ciento : 6,247-16,299), enfermedad renal crónica (OR:8,434, IC 95 por ciento: 3,400-20,919), cáncer (OR:7,169, IC 95 por ciento: 2,920-17,601), enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica (OR:5,300, IC95 por ciento: 2,376-11,822), obesidad (OR:4,230, IC 95 por ciento: 1,362-13,139), insuficiencia cardiaca (OR:4,197, IC 95 por ciento: 1,085-16,244), diabetes (OR:2,360, IC 95 por ciento: 1,339-4,159), hipertensión (OR:2,264, IC 95 por ciento: 1,398-3,668) y cardiopatía isquémica (OR:2,321, IC 95 por ciento: 1,168-4,610). Se encontró asociación significativa de comorbilidades, con dos, tres y más de tres (OR: 22,9, IC 95 por ciento: 13,4-39.2), (OR:72,5, IC 95 por ciento: 39,8-132,1) y (OR:88,9, IC 95 por ciento: 36,2-217,8), respectivamente. La combinación de comorbilidades más frecuente entre los fallecidos fue: hipertensión con diabetes (17,7 por ciento vs 1,9 por ciento) e hipertensión con enfermedad renal crónica (8,1 por ciento vs 0,2 por ciento). Conclusiones: La edad avanzada, la enfermedad renal crónica, cardiopatía isquémica, insuficiencia cardiaca, hipertensión, diabetes, cáncer, enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica, obesidad y el número de comorbilidades se relacionaron significativamente con la mortalidad y podrían ayudar a identificar a los pacientes con mayor riesgo(AU)

Introduction: Comorbidities have been related to highrisk of contracting COVID-19, and of having poor evolution and mortality. Objective: To identify risk factors associated with mortality at the end of the hospital stay in patients diagnosed with COVID-19 in Cuba. Methods: A retrospective cohort of all patients confirmed COVID-19 in Cuba, aged 18 years or older, diagnosed from March 11 to October 15, 2020. The source of information was the national database of the Ministry of Public health. Age, sex and comorbidities were collected, and classified as recovered and deceased. This is an analytical study of factors and comorbidities associated with mortality. Results: This study analyzed 5,490 patients (97.7 percent recovered vs 2.3 percent deceased). The deceased were significantly older (72.8 vs 44.5 years). The most frequent comorbidities in the deceased were hypertension (47.6 percent vs 7.8 percent), diabetes (27.4 percent vs 2.6 percent), ischemic heart disease (14.5 percent vs 0.9 percent), chronic kidney disease (11.3 percent vs 0.3 percent) and COPD (11.3 percent vs 0.5 percent). An independent risk of mortality was found at the age of 60 years or more (OR: 10,090, 95 percent CI: 6,247-16,299), chronic kidney disease (OR: 8,434, 95 percent CI: 3,400-20,919), cancer (OR: 7,169 , 95 percent CI: 2,920-17,601), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (OR: 5,300, 95 percent CI: 2,376-11,822), obesity (OR: 4,230, 95 percent CI: 1,362-13,139), heart failure (OR: 4,197, CI 95 percent: 1,085-16,244), diabetes (OR: 2,360, 95 percent CI: 1,339-4,159), hypertension (OR: 2,264, 95 percent CI: 1,398-3,668) and ischemic heart disease (OR: 2,321, 95 percent CI: 1,168 -4,610). A significant association of comorbidities was found, with two, three and more than three (OR: 22.9, 95 percent CI: 13.4-39.2), (OR: 72.5, 95 percent CI: 39.8-132, 1) and (OR: 88.9, 95 percent CI: 36.2-217.8) respectively. The most frequent combination of comorbidities among the deceased subjects was hypertension with diabetes (17.7 percent vs 1.9 percent) and hypertension with chronic kidney disease (8.1 percent vs 0.2 percent). Conclusions: Advanced age, chronic kidney disease, ischemic heart disease, heart failure, hypertension, diabetes, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, obesity and the number of comorbidities were significantly related to mortality and could help to identify patients with higher risk(AU)

Evaluación de la vigilancia microbiológica del cólera / Evaluation of cholera microbiological surveillance

Introducción: el cólera constituye una enfermedad infecciosa, por lo que desde hace más de 40 años ha sido objeto de vigilancia en Cuba. La razón de ser de la vigilancia es la obtención de información, su procesamiento, análisis y elaboración de recomendaciones para la acción oportuna. Objetivo: evaluar la vigilancia microbiológica del cólera en el Centro Provincial de Higiene y Epidemiología de La Habana. Método: se realizó un estudio descriptivo transversal de evaluación táctica en el período del I de octubre al I8 de noviembre del año 20I2. El universo lo constituyeron la Vicedirección de Higiene y Epidemiología y la Vicedirección de Microbiología con sus 22 laboratorios. Se seleccionó una muestra no aleatoria, por conveniencia, que quedó integrada por el jefe de departamento de la unidad de análisis y tendencias de salud, el jefe del programa de control de enfermedades de transmisión digestiva, el vicedirector de microbiología y el personal que se encontraba presente en los laboratorios de agua y de enterobacterias. Se aplicó la metodología de la evaluación rápida propuesta por la Dra. Fariñas, visitándose en un período de 2 días, el laboratorio provincial de microbiología. Resultados: se identificaron brechas existente entre lo que estaba orientado para realizar ante todo paciente sospechosos o confirmado de cólera por parte del laboratorio de microbiología y lo que en realidad se estaba realizando. Conclusiones: las acciones de vigilancia microbiológica del cólera en el Centro Provincial de Higiene y Epidemiología fueron evaluadas de medianamente útil. Estructura medianamente suficiente. Proceso aceptable e impacto satisfactorio...

Background: cholera is an infectious disease, so for more than 40 years it has been under surveillance in Cuba. The reason for monitoring cholera in Cuba is to obtain information, processing, analysis, and development of recommendations for appropriate action. Objective: to evaluate cholera microbiological surveillance in Havana Center of Hygiene and Epidemiology. Method: a descriptive cross-sectional study of tactical assessment was conducted from October to 1st November I8th, 20I2. The universe was formed by vice-direction of Hygiene and Epidemiology and vice-direction of Microbiology with its 22 laboratories. A non-random sample of convenience was chosen. it was composed of the head of the department of the unit for analysis and health trends, the program chief for controlling digestive transmission disease, the deputy director of microbiology and the staff who was present in water laboratories and Enterobacteriaceae. A rapid assessment methodology proposed by Dr. Farinas was applied, visiting the provincial microbiology laboratory over a period of 2 days. Results: existing gaps were identified between what was primarily instructed for a suspected or confirmed case of cholera by the microbiology laboratory and what actually was taking place. Conclusions: cholera microbiological surveillance actions were evaluated fairly useful in Havana Center of Hygiene and Epidemiology, as reasonably sufficient structure, good enough process, and satisfactory impact...

Evaluación de la vigilancia del cólera en el policlínico Héroes del Moncada / Evaluation of cholera surveillance at Heroes of Moncada polyclinic

Introducción: la evaluación está concebida como la actividad que permite emitir un juicio de valor. El cólera constituye una enfermedad infecciosa conocida desde tiempos inmemoriales, por lo que desde hace más de 40 años ha sido objeto de vigilancia en Cuba. Múltiples y complejas variables han sido las responsables de la entrada del Vibrio cholerae en el país, condicionando la aparición en el territorio nacional de diversos brotes. Objetivo: evaluar la vigilancia del cólera en el policlínico Héroes del Moncada del municipio Plaza de la Revolución, en el período de octubre-noviembre de 2012. Método: se realizó un estudio descriptivo, transversal, de evaluación táctica. El universo estuvo conformado por: 26 médicos de consultorios de médico de familia, un vicedirector de Higiene y Epidemiología, 3 técnicas de laboratorios, dos de estadísticas y 3 técnicos de Higiene del área. Se seleccionó una muestra por conveniencia que representó el 20 por ciento del universo. Se aplicó la metodología de la evaluación rápida propuesta por la Dra. Teresa Fariñas, visitándose en un período de 2 días un total de 5 consultorios del policlínico. Además se recogió información retrospectiva del mes de octubre y primera quincena de noviembre. Resultados: se identificaron brechas entre lo que estaba orientado vigilar por los médicos y enfermeras de la familia ante todo caso que solicitara atención médica por padecer de una enfermedad diarreica aguda y lo que en realidad se estaba realizando. Conclusiones: la valoración de la vigilancia del cólera en nuestro estudio fue evaluada de medianamente satisfactoria, al calificarse como no útil, con una calidad medianamente aceptable y unos resultados satisfactorios...

evaluation is conceived as the activity that allows a judgment of value. Cholera is an infectious disease known since ancient times, so for more than 40 years it has been under surveillance in Cuba. Multiple and complex variables have been responsible for the entry of Vibrio cholerae in Cuba, conditioning the emergence of several outbreaks on the national territory. Objective: to assess cholera surveillance at Heroes of Moncada polyclinic in Plaza Township, Havana from October to November 2012. Method: a tactical, descriptive, cross-sectional study assessment was performed. The universe consisted of 26 medical practices, a principal assistant of Hygiene and Epidemiology, 3 laboratory technicians, 2 of statistics technicians, and 3 hygiene technicians from this area. A convenience sample was selected representing 20 percent of the universe. The rapid assessment methodology proposed by Dr. Teresa Fariñas was applied, visiting 5 medical practices of this area over a total period of two days. Further background information from October and first half of November was collected. Results: gaps were identified between what was primarily instructed to control by family physicians and nurses in case of health care due to acute diarrheal disease and what actually was taking place. Conclusions: the evaluation of cholera surveillance in our study was assessed fairly satisfactory, by being scored as unuseful, with a fairly acceptable quality and satisfactory results...