Impacts of Domestication and Veterinary Treatment on Mobile Genetic Elements and Resistance Genes in Equine Fecal Bacteria.

Antimicrobial resistance in bacteria is a threat to both human and animal health. We aimed to understand the impact of domestication and antimicrobial treatment on the types and numbers of resistant bacteria, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and class 1 integrons (C1I) in the equine gut microbiome. Antibiotic-resistant fecal bacteria were isolated from wild horses, healthy farm horses, and horses undergoing veterinary treatment, and isolates (9,083 colonies) were screened by PCR for C1I; these were found at frequencies of 9.8% (vet horses), 0.31% (farm horses), and 0.05% (wild horses). A collection of 71 unique C1I+ isolates (17 Actinobacteria and 54 Proteobacteria) was subjected to resistance profiling and genome sequencing. Farm horses yielded mostly C1I+ Actinobacteria (Rhodococcus, Micrococcus, Microbacterium, Arthrobacter, Glutamicibacter, Kocuria), while vet horses primarily yielded C1I+ Proteobacteria (Escherichia, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Pantoea, Acinetobacter, Leclercia, Ochrobactrum); the vet isolates had more extensive resistance and stronger PC promoters in the C1Is. All integrons in Actinobacteria were flanked by copies of IS6100, except in Micrococcus, where a novel IS5 family element (ISMcte1) was implicated in mobilization. In the Proteobacteria, C1Is were predominantly associated with IS26 and also IS1, Tn21, Tn1721, Tn512, and a putative formaldehyde-resistance transposon (Tn7489). Several large C1I-containing plasmid contigs were retrieved; two of these (plasmid types Y and F) also had extensive sets of metal resistance genes, including a novel copper-resistance transposon (Tn7519). Both veterinary treatment and domestication increase the frequency of C1Is in equine gut microflora, and each of these anthropogenic factors selects for a distinct group of integron-containing bacteria. IMPORTANCE There is increasing acknowledgment that a "one health" approach is required to tackle the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance. This requires that the issue is examined from not only the perspective of human medicine but also includes consideration of the roles of antimicrobials in veterinary medicine and agriculture and recognizes the importance of other ecological compartments in the dissemination of ARGs and mobile genetic elements such as C1I. We have shown that domestication and veterinary treatment increase the frequency of occurrence of C1Is in the equine gut microflora and that, in healthy farm horses, the C1I are unexpectedly found in Actinobacteria, while in horses receiving antimicrobial veterinary treatments, a taxonomic shift occurs, and the more typical integron-containing Proteobacteria are found. We identified several new mobile genetic elements (plasmids, insertion sequences [IS], and transposons) on genomic contigs from the integron-containing equine bacteria.

The equine hindgut as a reservoir of mobile genetic elements and antimicrobial resistance genes.

Antibiotic resistance in bacterial pathogens is a growing problem for both human and veterinary medicine. Mobile genetic elements (MGEs) such as plasmids, transposons, and integrons enable the spread of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) among bacteria, and the overuse of antibiotics drives this process by providing the selection pressure for resistance genes to establish and persist in bacterial populations. Because bacteria, MGEs, and resistance genes can readily spread between different ecological compartments (e.g. soil, plants, animals, humans, wastewater), a "One Health" approach is needed to combat this problem. The equine hindgut is an understudied but potentially significant reservoir of ARGs and MGEs, since horses have close contact with humans, their manure is used in agriculture, they have a dense microbiome of both bacteria and fungi, and many antimicrobials used for equine treatment are also used in human medicine. Here, we collate information to date about resistance genes, plasmids, and class 1 integrons from equine-derived bacteria, we discuss why the equine hindgut deserves increased attention as a potential reservoir of ARGs, and we suggest ways to minimize the selection for ARGs in horses, in order to prevent their spread to the wider community.

Risk factors for candidaemia: A prospective multi-centre case-control study.

OBJECTIVES: Candidaemia carries a mortality of up to 40% and may be related to increasing complexity of medical care. Here, we determined risk factors for the development of candidaemia. METHODS: We conducted a prospective, multi-centre, case-control study over 12 months. Cases were aged ≥18 years with at least one blood culture positive for Candida spp. Each case was matched with two controls, by age within 10 years, admission within 6 months, admitting unit, and admission duration at least as long as the time between admission and onset of candidaemia. RESULTS: A total of 118 incident cases and 236 matched controls were compared. By multivariate analysis, risk factors for candidaemia included neutropenia, solid organ transplant, significant liver, respiratory or cardiovascular disease, recent gastrointestinal, biliary or urological surgery, central venous access device, intravenous drug use, urinary catheter and carbapenem receipt. CONCLUSIONS: Risk factors for candidaemia derive from the infection source, carbapenem use, host immune function and organ-based co-morbidities. Preventive strategies should target iatrogenic disruption of mucocutaneous barriers and intravenous drug use.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Inhibits the Growth of Scedosporium and Lomentospora In Vitro.

In vitro bacterial-fungal interaction studies in cystic fibrosis (CF) have mainly focused on interactions between bacteria and Candida. Here we investigated the effect of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on the growth of Scedosporium/Lomentospora spp. Standard suspensions of P. aeruginosa (16 non-mucoid and nine mucoid isolates) were dropped onto paper disks, placed on lawns of Lomentospora prolificans (formerly Scedosporium prolificans) strain WM 14.140 or Scedosporium aurantiacum strain WM 11.78 on solid agar. The median inhibitory activity (mIz) was calculated for each fungal-bacterial combination. As a group, mIz values for non-mucoid phenotype P. aeruginosa strains were significantly lower than those for mucoid strains (P < 0.001); 14/16 (87.5%) non-mucoid strains had mIz <1.0 against both fungi versus just 3/9 mucoid strains (33.4%) (P = 0.01). One non-mucoid (PA14) and one mucoid (CIDMLS-PA-28) P. aeruginosa strain effecting inhibition were selected for further studies. Inhibition of both L. prolificans and S. aurantiacum by these strains was confirmed using the XTT (2,3-bis(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-5-[(phenylamino)carbonyl]-2H-tetrazolium hydroxide) reduction assay. Following incubation with XTT, inhibition of fungal growth was determined as the ratio of absorbance in liquid culture with Pseudomonas to that in control fungal cultures. An absorbance ratio of <1.0 consistent with bacterial inhibition of fungal growth was observed for all four P. aeruginosa-fungal combinations (P < 0.05). Fluorescence microscopy, subsequent to co-culture of either fungal isolate with P. aeruginosa strain PA14 or CIDMLS-PA-28 revealed poorly formed hyphae, compared with control fungal cultures. P. aeruginosa inhibits growth of L. prolificans and S. aurantiacum in vitro, with non-mucoid strains more commonly having an inhibitory effect. As P. aeruginosa undergoes phenotype transitions from non-mucoid to the mucoid form with progression of CF lung disease, this balance may influence the appearance of Scedosporium fungi in the airways.

Changing epidemiology of candidaemia in Australia.

Objectives: Knowledge of contemporary epidemiology of candidaemia is essential. We aimed to identify changes since 2004 in incidence, species epidemiology and antifungal susceptibilities of Candida spp. causing candidaemia in Australia. Methods: These data were collected from nationwide active laboratory-based surveillance for candidaemia over 1 year (within 2014-2015). Isolate identification was by MALDI-TOF MS supplemented by DNA sequencing. Antifungal susceptibility testing was performed using Sensititre YeastOne™. Results: A total of 527 candidaemia episodes (yielding 548 isolates) were evaluable. The mean annual incidence was 2.41/105 population. The median patient age was 63 years (56% of cases occurred in males). Of 498 isolates with confirmed species identity, Candida albicans was the most common (44.4%) followed by Candida glabrata complex (26.7%) and Candida parapsilosis complex (16.5%). Uncommon Candida species comprised 25 (5%) isolates. Overall, C. albicans (>99%) and C. parapsilosis (98.8%) were fluconazole susceptible. However, 16.7% (4 of 24) of Candida tropicalis were fluconazole- and voriconazole-resistant and were non-WT to posaconazole. Of C. glabrata isolates, 6.8% were resistant/non-WT to azoles; only one isolate was classed as resistant to caspofungin (MIC of 0.5 mg/L) by CLSI criteria, but was micafungin and anidulafungin susceptible. There was no azole/echinocandin co-resistance. Conclusions: We report an almost 1.7-fold proportional increase in C. glabrata candidaemia (26.7% versus 16% in 2004) in Australia. Antifungal resistance was generally uncommon, but azole resistance (16.7% of isolates) amongst C. tropicalis may be emerging.

Performance of Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry for Identification of Aspergillus, Scedosporium, and Fusarium spp. in the Australian Clinical Setting.

We developed an Australian database for the identification of Aspergillus, Scedosporium, and Fusarium species (n = 28) by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). In a challenge against 117 isolates, species identification significantly improved when the in-house-built database was combined with the Bruker Filamentous Fungi Library compared with that for the Bruker library alone (Aspergillus, 93% versus 69%; Fusarium, 84% versus 42%; and Scedosporium, 94% versus 18%, respectively).

Understanding the microbial fibre degrading communities & processes in the equine gut.

The equine gastrointestinal tract is a self-sufficient fermentation system, housing a complex microbial consortium that acts synergistically and independently to break down complex lignocellulolytic material that enters the equine gut. Despite being strict herbivores, equids such as horses and zebras lack the diversity of enzymes needed to completely break down plant tissue, instead relying on their resident microbes to carry out fibrolysis to yield vital energy sources such as short chain fatty acids. The bulk of equine digestion occurs in the large intestine, where digesta is fermented for 36-48 h through the synergistic activities of bacteria, fungi, and methanogenic archaea. Anaerobic gut dwelling bacteria and fungi break down complex plant polysaccharides through combined mechanical and enzymatic strategies, and notably possess some of the greatest diversity and repertoire of carbohydrate active enzymes among characterized microbes. In addition to the production of enzymes, some equid-isolated anaerobic fungi and bacteria have been shown to possess cellulosomes, powerful multi-enzyme complexes that further enhance break down. The activities of both anaerobic fungi and bacteria are further facilitated by facultatively aerobic yeasts and methanogenic archaea, who maintain an optimal environment for fibrolytic organisms, ultimately leading to increased fibrolytic microbial counts and heightened enzymatic activity. The unique interactions within the equine gut as well as the novel species and powerful mechanisms employed by these microbes makes the equine gut a valuable ecosystem to study fibrolytic functions within complex communities. This review outlines the primary taxa involved in fibre break down within the equine gut and further illuminates the enzymatic strategies and metabolic pathways used by these microbes. We discuss current methods used in analysing fibrolytic functions in complex microbial communities and propose a shift towards the development of functional assays to deepen our understanding of this unique ecosystem.

Long-read MinION™ sequencing of 16S and 16S-ITS-23S rRNA genes provides species-level resolution of Lactobacillaceae in mixed communities.

The Lactobacillaceae are lactic acid bacteria harnessed to deliver important outcomes across numerous industries, and their unambiguous, species-level identification from mixed community environments is an important endeavor. Amplicon-based metataxonomics using short-read sequencing of partial 16S rRNA gene regions is widely used to support this, however, the high genetic similarity among Lactobacillaceae species restricts our ability to confidently describe these communities even at genus level. Long-read sequencing (LRS) of the whole 16S rRNA gene or the near complete rRNA operon (16S-ITS-23S) has the potential to improve this. We explored species ambiguity amongst Lactobacillaceae using in-silico tool RibDif2, which identified allele overlap when various partial and complete 16S rRNA gene and 16S-ITS-23S rRNA regions were amplified. We subsequently implemented LRS by MinION™ to compare the capacity of V3-V4, 16S and 16S-ITS-23S rRNA amplicons to accurately describe the diversity of a 20-species Lactobacillaceae mock community in practice. In-silico analysis identified more instances of allele/species overlap with V3-V4 amplicons (n = 43) compared to the 16S rRNA gene (n = 11) and partial (n = up to 15) or complete (n = 0) 16S-ITS-23S rRNA amplicons. With subsequent LRS of a DNA mock community, 80% of target species were identified using V3-V4 amplicons whilst the 16S rRNA gene and 16S-ITS-23S rRNA region amplicons resulted in 95 and 100% of target species being identified. A considerable reduction in false-positive identifications was also seen with 16S rRNA gene (n = 3) and 16S-ITS-23S rRNA region (n = 9) amplicons compared with V3-V4 amplicons (n = 43). Whilst the target species affected by allele overlap in V3-V4 and 16S rRNA gene sequenced mock communities were predicted by RibDif2, unpredicted species ambiguity was observed in 16S-ITS-23S rRNA sequenced communities. Considering the average nucleotide identity (ANI) between ambiguous species (~97%) and the basecall accuracy of our MinION™ sequencing protocol (96.4%), the misassignment of reads between closely related taxa is to be expected. With basecall accuracy exceeding 99% for recent MinION™ releases, the increased species-level differentiating power promised by longer amplicons like the 16S-ITS-23S rRNA region, may soon be fully realized.

Evaluation of the efficacy of four weak acids as antifungal preservatives in low-acid intermediate moisture model food systems.

The potential efficacy of four weak acids as preservatives in low-acid intermediate moisture foods was assessed using a glycerol based agar medium. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC, % wt./wt.) of each acid was determined at two pH values (pH 5.0, pH 6.0) and two a(w) values (0.85, 0.90) for five food spoilage fungi, Eurotium herbariorum, Eurotium rubrum, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium roqueforti. Sorbic acid, a preservative commonly used to control fungal growth in low-acid intermediate moisture foods, was included as a reference. The MIC values of the four acids were lower at pH 5.0 than pH 6.0 at equivalent a(w) values, and lower at 0.85 a(w) than 0.90 a(w) at equivalent pH values. By comparison with the MIC values of sorbic acid, those of caprylic acid and dehydroacetic acid were generally lower, whereas those for caproic acid were generally higher. No general observation could be made in the case of capric acid. The antifungal activities of all five weak acids appeared related not only to the undissociated form, but also the dissociated form, of each acid.

Antifungal susceptibilities of non-Aspergillus filamentous fungi causing invasive infection in Australia: support for current antifungal guideline recommendations.

Antifungal susceptibilities of non-Aspergillus filamentous fungal pathogens cannot always be inferred from their identification. Here we determined, using the Sensititre(®) YeastOne(®) YO10 panel, the in vitro activities of nine antifungal agents against 52 clinical isolates of emergent non-Aspergillus moulds representing 17 fungal groups in Australia. Isolates comprised Mucorales (n = 14), Scedosporium/Lomentospora spp. (n = 18) and a range of hyaline hyphomycetes (n = 9) and other dematiaceous fungi (n = 11). Excluding Verruconis gallopava, echinocandins demonstrated poor activity (MICs generally >8 mg/L) against these moulds. Lomentospora prolificans (n = 4) and Fusarium spp. (n = 6) demonstrated raised MICs to all antifungal drugs tested, with the lowest being to voriconazole and amphotericin B (AmB), respectively (geometric mean MICs of 3.4 mg/L and 2.2 mg/L, respectively). All Scedosporium apiospermum complex isolates (n = 14) were inhibited by voriconazole concentrations of ≤0.25 mg/L, followed by posaconazole and itraconazole at ≤1 mg/L. Posaconazole and AmB were the most active agents against the Mucorales, with MIC90 values of 1 mg/L and 2 mg/L, respectively, for Rhizopus spp. For dematiaceous fungi, all isolates were inhibited by itraconazole and posaconazole concentrations of ≤0.5 mg/L (MIC90, 0.12 mg/L and 0.25 mg/L, respectively), but voriconazole and AmB also had in vitro activity (MIC90, 0.5 mg/L and 1 mg/L, respectively). Differences in antifungal susceptibility within species and between species within genera support the need for testing individual patient isolates to guide therapy. The Sensititre(®) YeastOne(®) offers a practical alternative to the reference methodology for susceptibility testing of moulds.

The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling pathway modulates the endocrine differentiation of trophoblast cells.

Activation of Lyn, a Src-related nonreceptor tyrosine kinase, in trophoblast cells is associated with trophoblast giant cell differentiation. The purpose of the present work was to use Lyn as a tool to identify signaling pathways regulating the endocrine differentiation of trophoblast cells. The Src homology 3 domain of Lyn was shown to display differentiation-dependent associations with other regulatory proteins, including phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K). PI3-K activation was dependent upon trophoblast giant cell differentiation. The downstream mediator of PI3-K, Akt/protein kinase B, also exhibited differentiation-dependent activation. Lyn is a potential regulator of the PI3-K/Akt signaling pathway, as are receptor tyrosine kinases. Protein tyrosine kinase profiling was used to identify two candidate regulators of the PI3-K/Akt pathway, fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 and Sky. At least part of the activation of Akt in differentiating trophoblast giant cells involves an autocrine growth arrest-specific-6-Sky signaling pathway. Inhibition of PI3-K activities via treatment with LY294002 disrupted Akt activation and interfered with the endocrine differentiation of trophoblast giant cells. In summary, activation of the PI3-K/Akt signaling pathway regulates the development of the differentiated trophoblast giant cell phenotype.

Control of trophoblast cell differentiation: Lessons from the genetics of early pregnancy loss and trophoblast neoplasia.

Trophoblast cell differentiation is crucial to the morphogenesis of the placenta and thus the establishment of pregnancy and the growth and development of the embryo/fetus. In the present review, we discuss current evidence for the existence of regulatory genes crucial to trophoblast cell differentiation and placental morphogenesis. The elucidation of regulatory pathways controlling normal differentiation of trophoblast cells will facilitate the identification of sensitive junctures in the regulatory pathways leading to various developmental disorders, including those associated with the initiation of pregnancy, fetal growth retardation and gestational trophoblast disease.

Clostridium sporogenes PA 3679 and its uses in the derivation of thermal processing schedules for low-acid shelf-stable foods and as a research model for proteolytic Clostridium botulinum.

The putrefactive anaerobe Clostridium sporogenes PA 3679 has been widely used as a nontoxigenic surrogate for proteolytic Clostridium botulinum in the validation of thermal processes for low-acid shelf-stable foods, as a target organism in the derivation of thermal processes that reduce the risk of spoilage of such foods to an acceptable level, and as a research model for proteolytic strains of C. botulinum. Despite the importance of this organism, our knowledge of it has remained fragmented. In this article we draw together the literature associated with PA 3679 and discuss the identity of this organism, the phylogenetic relationships that exist between PA 3679 and various strains of C. sporogenes and proteolytic C. botulinum, the heat resistance characteristics of PA 3679, the advantages and limitations associated with its use in the derivation of thermal processing schedules, and the knowledge gaps and opportunities that exist with regard to its use as a research model for proteolytic C. botulinum. Phylogenetic analysis reviewed here suggests that PA 3679 is more closely related to various strains of proteolytic C. botulinum than to selected strains, including the type strain, of C. sporogenes. Even though PA 3679 is demonstrably nontoxigenic, the genetic basis of this nontoxigenic status remains to be elucidated, and the genetic sequence of this microorganism appears to be the key knowledge gap remaining to be filled. Our comprehensive review of comparative heat resistance data gathered for PA 3679 and proteolytic strains of C. botulinum over the past 100 years supports the practice of using PA 3679 as a (typically fail-safe) thermal processing surrogate for proteolytic C. botulinum.

Effect of reduced water activity and reduced matric potential on the germination of xerophilic and non-xerophilic fungi.

Reduction in water activity (a(w)) is used as a microbiological hurdle to prevent food spoilage. To minimize the levels of salt and sugar, which are commonly used to reduce a(w), the potential of food structure as a microbiological hurdle needs to be assessed. The concept of matric potential (Psi(m)) is used to measure the effect of food structure on water movement. This study reports the effect of reduced a(w) and reduced Psi(m) on the germination of xerophilic fungi (represented by Eurotium herbariorum) and non-xerophilic fungi (represented by Aspergillus niger) on model glycerol agar media. Germination curves were plotted with the percentage of germinated spores against time. The germination time (t(G)), which is defined as the time at which 50% of the total viable spores have germinated, was estimated using the Gompertz model. Total viable spores was defined as those spores that were able to germinate under the optimum a(w) and Psi(m) conditions for each species, i.e. 0.95 a(w) and 2.5% agar for E. herbariorum and 0.98 a(w) and 2.5% agar for A. niger. As a(w) decreased from 0.90 to 0.85 a(w), t(G) increased significantly for both the xerophilic fungi and non-xerophilic species at equivalent matric potential values. When matric potential was reduced from -12 kPa (2.5% agar) to -38 kPa (12.5% agar), t(G) of A. niger was significantly extended at 0.90 a(w); however, t(G) remained the same for A. niger at 0.85 a(w), and for E. herbariorum at 0.80, 0.85 and 0.90 a(w). This study demonstrated that the germination time for non-xerophilic and xerophilic fungi was extended by reduced a(w), however the effect of reduced Psi(m) was limited.

Effect of agar concentration on the matric potential of glycerol agar media and the germination and growth of xerophilic and non-xerophilic fungi.

The concept of water activity (a(w)) does not differentiate between water status resulting from the interaction of water with solutes, and that from interaction of water with matrices, which is termed matric potential (psi(m)). This study reports the effect of agar concentration (1.5, 3.0, 4.5, 6.0, and 7.5%, w/w) on matric potential of glycerol agar media (GA) and the germination and growth of xerophilic fungi (Eurotium herbariorum and E. rubrum) and non-xerophilic fungi (Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, and Penicillium roqueforti) on GA with or without sorbic acid (0.1-0.4%, w/w) at 0.90 a(w) and 0.95 a(w). The matric potential of GA decreased when the agar concentration increased from 1.5 to 7.5%. When the agar concentration increased at each a(w), the radial growth rate of the xerophilic fungi generally increased but the biomass density (biomass per unit area) decreased, whereas the radial growth rate of the non-xerophilic fungi generally decreased but the biomass density was unchanged. In the absence of sorbic acid, the time to germination of each species was similar for all agar concentrations. In the presence of sorbic acid, the time to germination of some species was significantly longer at higher agar concentrations (4.5%-7.5%) than 1.5% agar. This study demonstrated the inhibition effect on germination and growth of non-xerophilic fungi and xerophilic fungi by decreased matric potential resulting from increased agar concentrations, and the different responses of non-xerophilic fungi and xerophilic fungi to water stress from solutes and matrices. The concept of matric potential may be useful in food microbiology to provide a better understanding of fungal growth in complex food matrices.