A method to specifically activate the Klotho promoter by using zinc finger proteins constructed from modular building blocks and from naturally engineered Egr1 transcription factor backbone.

There is an unmet need for treatments for diseases associated with aging. The antiaging, life-extending, and cognition-enhancing protein Klotho is neuroprotective due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and pro-myelinating effects. In addition, Klotho is also a tumor suppressor and has beneficial roles in multiple organs. Klotho is downregulated as part of the aging process. Thus, upregulating Klotho in the brain may lead to novel therapeutics to people suffering or at risk for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. We attempted to upregulate Klotho for its beneficial effects in the brain and elsewhere. Here, we describe a method to specifically activate Klotho gene expression. To accomplish this task, we designed zinc finger proteins (ZFPs) targeting within -300 bps of the human Klotho promoter. We designed the ZPF constructs either de novo from modular building blocks, or modified sequences from the natural endogenous Egr1 transcription factor backbone structure. Egr1 is known to upregulate Klotho expression. We tested the transcriptional activation effects of these ZFPs in a dual luciferase coincidence reporter system under the control of 4-kb promoter of human Klotho in stable HEK293 cells and in HK-2 cells that express Klotho protein endogenously. We found that the best ZFPs are the de novo designed ones targeting -250 bps of Klotho promoter and one of the Egr1-binding sites. We further enhanced Klotho's activation using p65-Rta transcriptional activation domains in addition to VP64. These upregulation approaches could be useful for studying Klotho's protective effects and designing Klotho boosting therapeutics for future in vivo experiments.

Klotho regulation by albuminuria is dependent on ATF3 and endoplasmic reticulum stress.

Proteinuria is associated with renal function decline and cardiovascular mortality. This association may be attributed in part to alterations of Klotho expression induced by albuminuria, yet the underlying mechanisms are unclear. The presence of albumin decreased Klotho expression in the POD-ATTAC mouse model of proteinuric kidney disease as well as in kidney epithelial cell lines. This downregulation was related to both decreased Klotho transcription and diminished protein half-life, whereas cleavage by ADAM proteases was not modified. The regulation was albumin specific since it was neither observed in the analbuminemic Col4α3-/- Alport mice nor induced by exposure of kidney epithelial cells to purified immunoglobulins. Albumin induced features of ER stress in renal tubular cells with ATF3/ATF4 activation. ATF3 and ATF4 induction downregulated Klotho through altered transcription mediated by their binding on the Klotho promoter. Inhibiting ER stress with 4-PBA decreased the effect of albumin on Klotho protein levels without altering mRNA levels, thus mainly abrogating the increased protein degradation. Taken together, albuminuria decreases Klotho expression through increased protein degradation and decreased transcription mediated by ER stress induction. This implies that modulating ER stress may improve proteinuria-induced alterations of Klotho expression, and hence renal and extrarenal complications associated with Klotho loss.

The neuroprotective effect of Klotho is mediated via regulation of members of the redox system.

Generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to oxidative damage and neuronal cell death, plays an important role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer disease. The present study aimed to examine the mechanism by which the anti-aging protein Klotho exerts neuroprotective effects against neuronal damage associated with neurodegeneration and oxidative stress. Pretreatment of rat primary hippocampal neurons and mouse hippocampal neuronal cell line HT22 with recombinant Klotho protected these cells from glutamate and oligomeric amyloid ß (oAß)-induced cytotoxicity. In addition, primary hippocampal neurons obtained from Klotho-overexpressing mouse embryos were more resistant to both cytotoxic insults, glutamate and oAß, compared with neurons from wild-type littermates. An antioxidative stress array analysis of neurons treated with Klotho revealed that Klotho significantly enhances the expression of the thioredoxin/peroxiredoxin (Trx/Prx) system with the greatest effect on the induction of Prx-2, an antioxidant enzyme, whose increase was confirmed at the mRNA and protein levels. Klotho-induced phosphorylation of the PI3K/Akt pathway, a pathway important in apoptosis and longevity, was associated with sustained inhibitory phosphorylation of the transcription factor forkhead box O3a (FoxO3a) and was essential for the induction of Prx-2. Down-regulation of Prx-2 expression using a lentivirus harboring shRNA almost completely abolished the ability of Klotho to rescue neurons from glutamate-induced death and significantly, but not completely, inhibited cell death mediated by oAß, suggesting that Prx-2 is a key modulator of neuroprotection. Thus, our results demonstrate, for the first time, the neuroprotective role of Klotho and reveal a novel mechanism underlying this effect.

The antiaging protein Klotho enhances oligodendrocyte maturation and myelination of the CNS.

We have previously shown that myelin abnormalities characterize the normal aging process of the brain and that an age-associated reduction in Klotho is conserved across species. Predominantly generated in brain and kidney, Klotho overexpression extends life span, whereas loss of Klotho accelerates the development of aging-like phenotypes. Although the function of Klotho in brain is unknown, loss of Klotho expression leads to cognitive deficits. We found significant effects of Klotho on oligodendrocyte functions, including induced maturation of rat primary oligodendrocytic progenitor cells (OPCs) in vitro and myelination. Phosphoprotein analysis indicated that Klotho's downstream effects involve Akt and ERK signal pathways. Klotho increased OPC maturation, and inhibition of Akt or ERK function blocked this effect on OPCs. In vivo studies of Klotho knock-out mice and control littermates revealed that knock-out mice have a significant reduction in major myelin protein and gene expression. By immunohistochemistry, the number of total and mature oligodendrocytes was significantly lower in Klotho knock-out mice. Strikingly, at the ultrastructural level, Klotho knock-out mice exhibited significantly impaired myelination of the optic nerve and corpus callosum. These mice also displayed severe abnormalities at the nodes of Ranvier. To decipher the mechanisms by which Klotho affects oligodendrocytes, we used luciferase pathway reporters to identify the transcription factors involved. Together, these studies provide novel evidence for Klotho as a key player in myelin biology, which may thus be a useful therapeutic target in efforts to protect brain myelin against age-dependent changes and promote repair in multiple sclerosis.

Identification of cleavage sites leading to the shed form of the anti-aging protein klotho.

Membrane protein shedding is a critical step in many normal and pathological processes. The anti-aging protein klotho (KL), mainly expressed in kidney and brain, is secreted into the serum and CSF, respectively. KL is proteolytically released, or shed, from the cell surface by ADAM10 and ADAM17, which are the α-secretases that also cleave the amyloid precursor protein and other proteins. The transmembrane KL is a coreceptor with the FGF receptor for FGF23, whereas the shed form acts as a circulating hormone. However, the precise cleavage sites in KL are unknown. KL contains two major cleavage sites: one close to the juxtamembrane region and another between the KL1 and KL2 domains. We identified the cleavage site involved in KL release by mutating potential sheddase(s) recognition sequences and examining the production of the KL extracellular fragments in transfected COS-7 cells. Deletion of amino acids T958 and L959 results in a 50-60% reduction in KL shedding, and an additional P954E mutation results in further reduction of KL shedding by 70-80%. Deletion of amino acids 954-962 resulted in a 94% reduction in KL shedding. This mutant also had moderately decreased cell surface expression, yet had overall similar subcellular localization as that of WT KL, as demonstrated by immunofluorescence. Cleavage-resistant mutants could function as a FGFR coreceptor for FGF23, but they lost activity as a soluble form of KL in proliferation and transcriptional reporter assays. Cleavage between the KL1 and KL2 domains is dependent on juxtamembrane cleavage. Our results shed light onto mechanisms underlying KL release from the cell membrane and provide a target for potential pharmacologic interventions aimed at regulating KL secretion.

Klotho, PTSD, and advanced epigenetic age in cortical tissue.

This study examined the klotho (KL) longevity gene polymorphism rs9315202 and psychopathology, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and alcohol-use disorders, in association with advanced epigenetic age in three postmortem cortical tissue regions: dorsolateral and ventromedial prefrontal cortices and motor cortex. Using data from the VA National PTSD Brain Bank (n = 117), we found that rs9315202 interacted with PTSD to predict advanced epigenetic age in motor cortex among the subset of relatively older (>=45 years), white non-Hispanic decedents (corrected p = 0.014, n = 42). An evaluation of 211 additional common KL variants revealed that only variants in linkage disequilibrium with rs9315202 showed similarly high levels of significance. Alcohol abuse was nominally associated with advanced epigenetic age in motor cortex (p = 0.039, n = 114). The rs9315202 SNP interacted with PTSD to predict decreased KL expression via DNAm age residuals in motor cortex among older white non-Hispanics decedents (indirect ß = -0.198, p = 0.027). Finally, in dual-luciferase enhancer reporter system experiments, we found that inserting the minor allele of rs9315202 in a human kidney cell line HK-2 genomic DNA resulted in a change in KL transcriptional activities, likely operating via long noncoding RNA in this region. This was the first study to examine multiple forms of psychopathology in association with advanced DNA methylation age across several brain regions, to extend work concerning the association between rs9315202 and advanced epigenetic to brain tissue, and to identify the effects of rs9315202 on KL gene expression. KL augmentation holds promise as a therapeutic intervention to slow the pace of cellular aging, disease onset, and neuropathology, particularly in older, stressed populations.

Cell-type dependent modulation of Notch signaling by the amyloid precursor protein.

The amyloid precursor protein is a ubiquitously expressed transmembrane protein that has been long implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease but its normal biological function has remained elusive despite extensive effort. We have previously reported the identification of Notch2 as an amyloid precursor protein interacting protein in E18 rat neurons. Here, we sought to reveal the physiologic consequences of this interaction. We report a functional relationship between amyloid precursor protein and Notch1, which does not affect Delta ligand binding. First, we observed interactions between the amyloid precursor protein and Notch in mouse embryonic stem cells lacking both presenilin 1 and presenilin 2, the active proteolytic components of the gamma-secretase complex, suggesting that these two transmembrane proteins can interact in the absence of presenilin. Next, we demonstrated that the amyloid precursor protein affects Notch signaling by using Notch-dependent luciferase assays in two cell lines, the human embryonic kidney 293 and the monkey kidney, COS7. We found that the amyloid precursor protein exerts opposing effects on Notch signaling in human embryonic kidney 293 vs. COS7 cells. Finally, we show that more Notch Intracellular Domain is found in the nucleus in the presence of exogenous amyloid precursor protein or its intracellular domain, suggesting the mechanism by which the amyloid precursor protein affects Notch signaling in certain cells. Our results provide evidence of potentially important communications between the amyloid precursor protein and Notch.

Insulin stimulates the cleavage and release of the extracellular domain of Klotho by ADAM10 and ADAM17.

Cleavage and release (shedding) of membrane proteins is a critical regulatory step in many normal and pathological processes. Evidence suggests that the antiaging transmembrane protein Klotho (KL) is shed from the cell surface by proteolytic cleavage. In this study, we attempted to identify the enzymes responsible for the shedding of KL by treating KL-transfected COS-7 cells with a panel of proteinase inhibitors and measuring cleavage products by Western blot. We report that metalloproteinase inhibitors, including EDTA, EGTA, and TAPI-1, inhibit the shedding of KL, whereas insulin increases shedding. The effects of the inhibitors in KL-transfected COS-7 cells were repeated in studies on rat kidney slices ex vivo, which validates the use of COS-7 cells as our model system. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (Timp)-3 effectively inhibits KL cleavage, whereas Timp-1 and Timp-2 do not, a profile that indicates the involvement of members of the A Desintegrin and Metalloproteinase (ADAM) family. Cotransfection of KL with either ADAM10 or ADAM17 enhances KL cleavage, whereas cotransfection of KL with small interference RNAs specific to ADAM10 and ADAM17 inhibits KL secretion. These results indicate that KL shedding is mediated mainly by ADAM10 and ADAM17 in KL-transfected COS-7 cells. The effect of insulin is abolished when ADAM10 or ADAM17 are silenced. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the effect of insulin on KL shedding is inhibited by wortmannin, showing that insulin acts through a PI3K-dependent pathway. Insulin enhances KL shedding without increasing ADAM10 and ADAM17 mRNA and protein levels, suggesting that it acts by stimulating their proteolytic activities.

Identification of the cleavage sites leading to the shed forms of human and mouse anti-aging and cognition-enhancing protein Klotho.

Klotho is an age-extending, cognition-enhancing protein found to be down-regulated in aged mammals when age-related diseases start to appear. Low levels of Klotho occur in neurodegenerative diseases, kidney disease and many cancers. Many normal and pathologic processes involve the proteolytic shedding of membrane proteins. Transmembrane (TM) Klotho contains two homologous domains, KL1 and KL2 with homology to glycosidases. After shedding by ADAM 10 and 17, a shed Klotho isoform is released into serum and urine by the kidney, and into the CSF by the choroid plexus. We previously reported that human Klotho contains two major cleavage sites. However, the exact cleavage site responsible for the cleavage between the KL1 and KL2 domains remains unknown for the human Klotho, and both sites are unknown for mouse Klotho. In this study, we aimed to identify the cleavage sites leading to the shed forms of human and mouse Klotho. Mutations in the region close to the TM domain of mouse Klotho result in the reduced shedding of the 130 kD (KL1+KL2) and 70 kD (KL1) fragments, suggesting that the cleavage site lies within the mutated region. We further identified the cleavage sites responsible for the cleavage between KL1 and KL2 of human and mouse Klotho. Moreover, mutated Klotho proteins have similar subcellular localization patterns as wild type Klotho. Finally, in an FGF23 functional assay, all Klotho mutants with a nine amino acid deletion can also function as an FGFR1 co-receptor for FGF23 signaling, however, the signaling activity was greatly reduced. The study provides new and important information on Klotho shedding, and paves the way for studies aimed to distinguish between the distinct roles of the various isoforms of Klotho.

Small Molecule Amyloid-ß Protein Precursor Processing Modulators Lower Amyloid-ß Peptide Levels via cKit Signaling.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation of neurotoxic amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides consisting of 39-43 amino acids, proteolytically derived fragments of the amyloid-ß protein precursor (AßPP), and the accumulation of the hyperphosphorylated microtubule-associated protein tau. Inhibiting Aß production may reduce neurodegeneration and cognitive dysfunction associated with AD. We have previously used an AßPP-firefly luciferase enzyme complementation assay to conduct a high throughput screen of a compound library for inhibitors of AßPP dimerization, and identified a compound that reduces Aß levels. In the present study, we have identified an analog, compound Y10, which also reduced Aß. Initial kinase profiling assays identified the receptor tyrosine kinase cKit as a putative Y10 target. To elucidate the precise mechanism involved, AßPP phosphorylation was examined by IP-western blotting. We found that Y10 inhibits cKit phosphorylation and increases AßPP phosphorylation mainly on tyrosine residue Y743, according to AßPP751 numbering. A known cKit inhibitor and siRNA specific to cKit were also found to increase AßPP phosphorylation and lower Aß levels. We also investigated a cKit downstream signaling molecule, the Shp2 phosphatase, and found that known Shp2 inhibitors and siRNA specific to Shp2 also increase AßPP phosphorylation, suggesting that the cKit signaling pathway is also involved in AßPP phosphorylation and Aß production. We further found that inhibitors of both cKit and Shp2 enhance AßPP surface localization. Thus, regulation of AßPP phosphorylation by small molecules should be considered as a novel therapeutic intervention for AD.

Klotho Is Neuroprotective in the Superoxide Dismutase (SOD1G93A) Mouse Model of ALS.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. ALS neuropathology is associated with increased oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, and inflammation. We and others reported that the anti-aging and cognition-enhancing protein Klotho is a neuroprotective, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and promyelinating protein. In mice, its absence leads to an extremely shortened life span and to multiple phenotypes resembling human aging, including motor and hippocampal neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment. In contrast, its overexpression extends life span, enhances cognition, and confers resistance against oxidative stress; it also reduces premature mortality and cognitive and behavioral abnormalities in an animal model for Alzheimer's disease (AD). These pleiotropic beneficial properties of Klotho suggest that Klotho could be a potent therapeutic target for preventing neurodegeneration in ALS. Klotho overexpression in the SOD1 mouse model of ALS resulted in delayed onset and progression of the disease and extended survival that was more prominent in females than in males. Klotho reduced the expression of neuroinflammatory markers and prevented neuronal loss with the more profound effect in the spinal cord than in the motor cortex. The effect of Klotho was accompanied by reduced expression of proinflammatory cytokines and enhanced the expression of antioxidative and promyelinating factors in the motor cortex and spinal cord of Klotho × SOD1 compared to SOD1 mice. Our study provides evidence that increased levels of Klotho alleviate ALS-associated pathology in the SOD1 mouse model and may serve as a basis for developing Klotho-based therapeutic strategies for ALS.

Activation of the Anti-Aging and Cognition-Enhancing Gene Klotho by CRISPR-dCas9 Transcriptional Effector Complex.

Multiple lines of evidence show that the anti-aging and cognition-enhancing protein Klotho fosters neuronal survival, increases the anti-oxidative stress defense, and promotes remyelination of demyelinated axons. Thus, upregulation of the Klotho gene can potentially alleviate the symptoms and/or prevent the progression of age-associated neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. Here we used a CRISPR-dCas9 complex to investigate single-guide RNA (sgRNA) targeting the Klotho promoter region for efficient transcriptional activation of the Klotho gene. We tested the sgRNAs within the - 1 to - 300 bp of the Klotho promoter region and identified two sgRNAs that can effectively enhance Klotho gene transcription. We examined the transcriptional activation of the Klotho gene using three different systems: a Firefly luciferase (FLuc) and NanoLuc luciferase (NLuc) coincidence reporter system, a NLuc knock-in in Klotho 3'-UTR using CRISPR genomic editing, and two human cell lines: neuronal SY5Y cells and kidney HK-2 cells that express Klotho endogenously. The two sgRNAs enhanced Klotho expression at both the gene and protein levels. Our results show the feasibility of gene therapy for targeting Klotho using CRISPR technology. Enhancing Klotho levels has a therapeutic potential for increasing cognition and treating age-associated neurodegenerative, demyelinating and other diseases, such as chronic kidney disease and cancer.

The Anti-Aging Protein Klotho Enhances Remyelination Following Cuprizone-Induced Demyelination.

The current study examined whether overexpression of Klotho (KL) in transgenic mice can enhance remyelination following cuprizone-induced demyelination and improves the clinical outcome in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Demyelination was achieved by feeding transgenic mice overexpressing the transmembrane form of Klotho (KL-OE) and wild-type (WT) littermates cuprizone-containing chow for 6 weeks. The animals were then allowed to remyelinate for 3 weeks. Paraphenylenediamine staining and platelets-derived growth factor receptor α (PDGFRα) and glutathione S-transferase pi (GSTpi) immunohistochemistry were performed on corpus callosum (CC) sections for quantification of myelin and progenitor and mature oligodendrocytes, respectively. The EAE model was induced with the MOG35-55 peptide. The animals were scored daily for clinical symptoms for 30 days. Following 6 weeks of demyelination, both KL-OE mice and WT littermates demonstrated almost complete and comparable demyelination of the CC. However, the level of spontaneous remyelination was increased approximately two-fold in KL-OE mice, although no significant differences in the numbers of PDGFRα and GSTpi-positive cells were observed. Following EAE induction, Klotho overexpression did not affect the clinical scores, likely due to the different roles Klotho plays in the brain and spinal cord. Thus, increasing Klotho expression should be considered as a therapy for enhancing remyelination in the brains of individuals with multiple sclerosis.

The anti-aging and tumor suppressor protein Klotho enhances differentiation of a human oligodendrocytic hybrid cell line.

Klotho functions as an aging suppressor, which, in mice, extends lifespan when overexpressed and accelerates development of aging-like phenotypes when disrupted. Klotho is mainly expressed in brain and kidney and is secreted into the serum and CSF. We have previously shown that Klotho is reduced in brains of old monkeys, rats, and mice. We further reported the ability of Klotho to enhance oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination. Here, we examined the signaling pathways induced by Klotho in MO3.13, a human oligodendrocytic hybrid cell line. We show that exogenous Klotho affects the ERK and Akt signaling pathways, decreases the proliferative abilities and enhances differentiation of MO3.13 cells. Furthermore, microarray analysis of Klotho-treated MO3.13 cells reveals a massive change in gene expression with 80 % of the differentially expressed genes being downregulated. Using gene set enrichment analysis, we predicted potential transcription factors involved in regulating Klotho-treated MO3.13 cells and found that these cells are highly enriched in the gene sets, that are similarly observed in cancer, cardiovascular disease, stress, aging, and hormone-related chemical and genetic perturbations. Since Klotho is downregulated in all brain tumors tested to date, enhancing Klotho has therapeutic potential for treating brain and other malignancies.

Stability of RNA from the retina and retinal pigment epithelium in a porcine model simulating human eye bank conditions.

PURPOSE: To assess RNA stability after death in a porcine model to simulate current human eye bank techniques. METHODS: Eye bank time interval data were collected from 191 donor specimens: death to refrigeration, enucleation, and tissue processing. A control porcine eye was enucleated, retina and RPE isolated, and specimens frozen (-80 degrees C). Fourteen porcine eyes remained at room temperature for 2 hours and then cooled to 4 degrees C. Retina and RPE were isolated and frozen (-80 degrees C) at 5, 12, 24, 29, 36, 48, and 72 hours. Four globes remained in a moist chamber, five whole and five sectioned globes were immersed in RNAlater (Ambion, Austin, TX) at 5, 12, 24, or 48 hours. RNA was isolated. The 28S and 18S rRNA peaks were analyzed by electrophoresis. RT-PCR was performed on each sample. Messenger RNA for GAPDH, beta-actin, mouse rhodopsin from retina (mRHO), and RPE-65 (from RPE) were analyzed with gel electrophoresis. RESULTS: The average time from death to refrigeration was 4.2 hours, to enucleation 6.4 hours, and to tissue processing 10.7 hours. RT-PCR gel electrophoresis patterns from retinal tissue had bands of similar intensity at each interval from beta-actin, GAPDH, and RHO. Band patterns from RPE demonstrated decay of the RT-PCR gene products after 5 hours. This decay was delayed by at least 24 hours with the use of RNAlater. The 28S rRNA decay was similar for retina and RPE. CONCLUSIONS: Retinal tissue RNA can be analyzed within the time constraints of current eye bank tissue processing, whereas analysis of RPE necessitates either rapid processing or use of RNAlater. These results should aid in future studies in which eye bank tissue is used for RNA analysis.

Identification and localization of major soluble vitreous proteins in human ocular tissue.

PURPOSE: To identify the major soluble proteins from human vitreous, and to establish a baseline for comparison of vitreous samples from eyes with various diseases. DESIGN: Laboratory investigation. METHODS: Normal vitreous was obtained from eight human donor eyes and from eight eyes of patients undergoing diabetic vitrectomy. Vitreous specimens were subjected to SDS-PAGE and MALDI-TOF-MS analysis. Six specific antibodies were used to identify proteins using Western blot. Four proteins were localized within ocular tissue in a normal donor eyebank eye. RESULTS: We found eight distinct bands on SDS-PAGE in normal vitreous and two additional bands (hemoglobin) in eyes with diabetic retinopathy. Proteins were identified using MALDI-TOF-MS and confirmed by Western blot. We established a quantitative analysis of relative protein concentrations of undiluted vitreous. Immunohistochemistry localized selected proteins within the posterior segment layers. CONCLUSIONS: We present a normal human vitreous protein profile using current technologies and provide a baseline for comparison to ocular disease states. Tissue distribution of vitreous proteins may help to elucidate more specific protein function.

Comparable dimerization found in wildtype and familial Alzheimer's disease amyloid precursor protein mutants.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disorder marked by memory impairment and cognitive deficits. A major component of AD pathology is the accumulation of amyloid plaques in the brain, which are comprised of amyloid beta (Aß) peptides derived from the amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (AßPP) by ß- and γ-secretases. In a subset of patients, inheritance of mutations in the AßPP gene is responsible for altering Aß production, leading to early onset disease. Interestingly, many of these familial mutations lie within the transmembrane domain of the protein near the GxxxG and GxxxA dimerization motifs that are important for transmembrane interactions. As AßPP dimerization has been linked to changes in Aß production, it is of interest to know whether familial AßPP mutations affect full-length APP dimerization. Using bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC), blue native gel electrophoresis, and live cell chemical cross-linking, we found that familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD) mutations do not affect full-length AßPP dimerization in transfected HEK293 and COS7 cells. It follows that changes in AßPP dimerization are not necessary for altered Aß production, and in FAD mutations, changes in Aß levels are more likely a result of alternative proteolytic processing.

Lowering of amyloid beta peptide production with a small molecule inhibitor of amyloid-ß precursor protein dimerization.

The amyloid ß precursor protein (APP) is a single-pass transmembrane glycoprotein that is ubiquitously expressed in many cell types, including neurons. Amyloidogenic processing of APP by ß- and γ-secretases leads to the production of amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides that can oligomerize and aggregate into amyloid plaques, a characteristic hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains. Multiple reports suggest that dimerization of APP may play a role in Aß production; however, it is not yet clear whether APP dimers increase or decrease Aß and the mechanism is not fully understood. To better understand the relationship between APP dimerization and production of Aß, a high throughput screen for small molecule modulators of APP dimerization was conducted using APP-Firefly luciferase enzyme complementation to detect APP dimerization. Selected modulators identified from a compound library of 77,440 compounds were tested for their effects on Aß generation. Two molecules that inhibited APP dimerization produced a reduction in Aß levels as measured by ELISA. The inhibitors did not change sAPPα or γ-CTF levels, but lowered sAPPß levels, suggesting that blocking the dimerization is preventing the cleavage by ß-secretase in the amyloidogenic processing of APP. To our knowledge, this is the first High Throughput Screen (HTS) effort to identify small molecule modulators of APP dimerization. Inhibition of APP dimerization has previously been suggested as a therapeutic target in AD. The findings reported here further support that modulation of APP dimerization may be a viable means of reducing the production of Aß.

Detection of amyloid-ß protein precursor homo-interactions using beta-galactosidase enzyme fragment complementation.

Amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid-ß protein precursor (AßPP) produces amyloid-ß peptides (Aß), the major constituent of amyloid plaques in the brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Experimental evidence suggests that increased dimerization of AßPP increases Aß while decreased dimerization of AßPP decreases Aß production. If true, developing tools for detecting AßPP-AßPP interactions to understand AßPP processing leading to Aß production would be important. Here, we developed the method of ß-galactosidase (ß-gal) enzyme fragment complementation as a means to detect AßPP-AßPP interactions. Inactive ß-gal fragments are independently tagged to the C-terminal ends of monomeric AßPPs, and will come together to form a functional enzyme upon AßPP-AßPP interactions. Successful detection of ß-gal activity has been used to qualitatively visualize and quantify the amount of AßPP dimers or higher oligomers. This method can be used to enhance our understanding of the biological processes dependent upon AßPP-AßPP interactions.

Age-dependent accumulation of ubiquitinated 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase in myelin lipid rafts.

Changes in brain white matter are prominent features of the aging brain and include glial cell activation, disruption of myelin membranes with resultant reorganization of the molecular components of the node of Ranvier, and loss of myelinated fibers associated with inflammation and oxidative stress. In previous studies, overexpression of CNP, a key myelin protein, was implicated in age-related changes in myelin and axons. Here we examine the extent of CNP accumulation in brain white matter and isolated myelin of aged rhesus monkeys and its relationship to CNP degradation and partitioning in myelin. With age, excess CNP is found in myelin and throughout brain white matter accompanied by proteolytic fragments of CNP. These increases occur in the absence of changes in CNP mRNA levels. Using a combination of 2D electrophoresis, immunoprecipitation, and mass spectrometry analysis, ubiquitinated CNP was demonstrable in the Triton X-100 insoluble lipid raft associated fractions of myelin isolated from rhesus monkeys. Further, using ubiquitin-mediated fluorescence complementation (UbFC), ubiquitinated CNP was visualized by microscopy in both COS-7 and MO3.13 cells and by immunoblot in MO3.13 cells and appears to at least partially localize within lipid rafts. The findings suggest that incomplete degradation of CNP due to failure of the proteasomal system and aberrant degradation by calpain-1 leads to age-related CNP accumulation and proteolysis. In sum, we suspect these phenomena result in age-related dysfunction of CNP in the lipid raft, which may lead to myelin and axonal pathology.