Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug sulindac sulfide suppresses structural protein Nesprin-2 expression in colorectal cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are well known for treating inflammatory disease and have been reported to have anti-tumorigenic effects. Their mechanisms are not fully understood, but both cyclooxygenase (COX) dependent and independent pathways are involved. Our goal was to shed further light on COX-independent activity. METHODS: Human colorectal cancer cells were observed under differential interference contrast microscopy (DICM), fluorescent microscopy, and micro-impedance measurement. Microarray analysis was performed using HCT-116 cells treated with sulindac sulfide (SS). PCR and Western blots were performed to confirm the microarray data and immunohistochemistry was performed to screen for Nesprin-2 expression. Micro-impedance was repeating including Nesprin-2 knock-down by siRNA. RESULTS: HCT-116 cells treated with SS showed dramatic morphological changes under DICM and fluorescent microscopy, as well as weakened cellular adhesion as measured by micro-impedance. Nesprin-2 was selected from two independent microarrays, based on its novelty in relation to cancer and its role in cell organization. SS diminished Nesprin-2 mRNA expression as assessed by reverse transcriptase and real time PCR. Various other NSAIDs were also tested and demonstrated that inhibition of Nesprin-2 mRNA was not unique to SS. Additionally, immunohistochemistry showed higher levels of Nesprin-2 in many tumors in comparison with normal tissues. Further micro-impedance experiments on cells with reduced Nesprin-2 expression showed a proportional loss of cellular adhesion. CONCLUSIONS: Nesprin-2 is down-regulated by NSAIDs and highly expressed in many cancers. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE: Our data suggest that Nesprin-2 may be a potential novel oncogene in human cancer cells and NSAIDs could decrease its expression.

Visualization of an evaporating thin layer during the evaporation of a nanofluid droplet.

During the evaporation of a droplet, there exists an evaporating thin layer that is difficult to visualize because of optical restrictions. The present study visualized this thin layer by using a reflective-mode, confocal microscope that can provide improved signal-to-noise focal plane imaging over traditional optical microscopy while simultaneously serving as an interferometer when imaging thin liquid films. The spatial distribution of the evaporating thin layer thickness was determined from interferometric fringe analysis. Three distinct fringe patterns, or regions, were observed depending on the nanoparticle concentration. These regions are referred to as uniform, slow extension, and rapid extension. The formation of the three regions is closely associated with the variation of the evaporating thin layer thickness of a nanofluid droplet. The nanoparticle bank formed near the contact line region substantially affects the rate of change in the evaporating thin layer thickness that increases with the nanoparticle concentration.

Development of a new contactless dielectrophoresis system for active particle manipulation using movable liquid electrodes.

This study presents a new DEP manipulation technique using a movable liquid electrode, which allows manipulation of particles by actively controlling the locations of electrodes and applying on-off electric input signals. This DEP system consists of mercury as a movable liquid electrode, indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass, SU-8-based microchannels for electrode passages, and a PDMS medium chamber. A simple squeezing method was introduced to build a thin PDMS layer at the bottom of the medium chamber to create a contactless DEP system. To determine the operating conditions, the DEP force and the friction force were analytically compared for a single cell. In addition, an appropriate frequency range for effective DEP manipulation was chosen based on an estimation of the Clausius-Mossotti factor and the effective complex permittivity of the yeast cell using the concentric shell model. With this system, we demonstrated the active manipulation of yeast cells, and measured the collection efficiency and the dielectrophoretic velocity of cells for different AC electric field strengths and applied frequencies. The experimental results showed that the maximum collection efficiency reached was approximately 90%, and the dielectrophoretic velocity increased with increasing frequency and attained the maximum value of 10.85 ± 0.95 µm/s at 100 kHz, above which it decreased.

Enzyme reactions in nanoporous, picoliter volume containers.

Advancements in nanoscale fabrication allow creation of small-volume reaction containers that can facilitate the screening and characterization of enzymes. A porous, ∼19 pL volume vessel has been used in this work to carry out enzyme reactions under varying substrate concentrations. Assessment of small-molecule and green fluorescent protein diffusion from the vessels indicates that pore sizes on the order of 10 nm can be obtained, allowing capture of proteins and diffusive exchange of small molecules. Glucose oxidase and horseradish peroxidase can be contained in these structures and diffusively fed with a solution containing glucose and the fluorogenic substrate amplex red through the engineered nanoscale pore structure. Fluorescent microscopy was used to monitor the reaction, which was carried out under microfluidic control. Kinetic characteristics of the enzyme (K(m) and V(max)) were evaluated and compared with results from conventional scale reactions. These picoliter, nanoporous containers can facilitate quick determination of enzyme kinetics in microfluidic systems without the requirement of surface tethering and can be used for applications in drug discovery, clinical diagnostics, and high-throughput screening.

Data from cryo-neutron phase change experiments with LH2 and LCH4.

Cryogenic Propellant management is a critical roadblock to enable long term space missions. Commonly used propellants (liquid hydrogen and methane) undergo constant vaporization but there is limited knowledge on the phase change rate and its implications on long term storage stability. This is, in part, due to the inability to image the liquid-vapor mixture inside opaque metallic containers at cryogenic temperatures. Here, neutron imaging is used as a visualization technique to track the liquid-vapor interface inside Al 6061 and SS 316 test cells. The data contains first known images of steady evaporation/condensation in cryogenic propellants. The experiments were conducted at the NIST Center for Neutron Research using the BT-2 Neutron Imaging facility. The test cells were instrumented with temperature sensors and inserted into a 70-mm liquid helium cryostat before being placed into the neutron beam. Temperatures and pressures were altered to achieve condensation/evaporation and Neutron images were captured during the entire phase change process. Phase change rates were obtained through image processing. The data contains raw images and processed phase change rates along with experimental temperature and pressure. The one-of-a-kind data could be used for model validation, correlation development or serve as a benchmark for future experiments.

Simultaneous measurements of cytoplasmic viscosity and intracellular vesicle sizes for live human brain cancer cells.

Intracellular vesicles, comprised of protein clusters, were individually tracked inside human brain cancer cells and characterized to simultaneously determine the average vesicle size and effective cytoplasmic viscosity. The cells were transfected with a TGF-ß superfamily gene, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-Activated Gene-1 (NAG-1) tagged with green fluorescent proteins (GFPs). Using total internal reflection fluorescent microscopy (TIRFM) the individual movements of the vesicles were categorized into either Brownian, caged, or directional type motion. In the near-field region confined by the evanescent wave field of TIRFM, the hindrance of these vesicles was created by interactions with the glass coverslip and/or sub-cellular structures. Measured particle motions were compared with theoretical predictions of hindered motion to estimate the unknown size and viscosity parameters using a nonlinear regression technique. For the tested human brain cancer cells, the average vesicle size and effective intracellular fluid viscosity were calculated to be 496 nm and 0.068 Pa s, respectively. This finding suggests that most of the hindrance experienced by vesicles can be due to non-hydrodynamic interactions with microtubules and other intracellular structures. It should be also noted that this method provides a way to examine changes in vesicle size due to outside stimulus such as drug interaction, cytotoxicity, etc., unlike standard measurement techniques which require fixing the cells themselves.

Wettability changes of TiO2 nanotube surfaces.

This study examines the effect of environmental and experimental conditions, such as temperature and time, on the wettability properties of titania nanotube (TNT) surfaces fabricated by anodization. The fabricated TNTs are 60-130 nm inner diameter and 7-10 µm height. One-microliter water droplets were used to define the wettability of the TNT surfaces by measuring the contact angles. A digital image analysis algorithm was developed to obtain contact angles, contact radii and center heights of the droplets on the TNT surfaces. Bare titanium foil is inherently less hydrophilic with approximately 60°-80° contact angle. The as-anodized TNT surfaces are more hydrophilic and annealing further increases this hydrophilic property. Furthermore, it was found that the TNT surface became more hydrophobic when aged in air over a period of three months. It is believed that the surface wettability can be changed due to alkane contamination and organic contaminants in an ambient atmosphere. This work can provide guidelines to better specify the environmental conditions that changes surface properties of TNT surfaces and therefore affect their desirable function in specific applications such as orthopedic implants.

Development and fabrication of nanoporous silicon-based bioreactors within a microfluidic chip.

Multi-scale lithography and cryogenic deep reactive ion etching techniques were used to create ensembles of nanoporous, picolitre volume, reaction vessels within a microfluidic system. The fabrication of these vessels is described and how this process can be used to tailor vessel porosity by controlling the width of slits that constitute the vessel pores is demonstrated. Control of pore size allows the containment of nucleic acids and enzymes that are the foundation of biochemical reaction systems, while allowing smaller reaction constituents to traverse the container membrane and continuously supply the reaction. In this work, a 5.4 kb DNA plasmid was retained within the reaction vessels and labeled under microfluidic control with ethidium bromide as an initial proof-of-principle. Subsequently, a coupled enzyme reaction, in which glucose oxidase (GOX) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) were contained and fed with a substrate solution of glucose and Amplex Red to produce fluorescent resorufin, was carried out under microfluidic control and monitored using fluorescent microscopy. The fabrication techniques presented are broadly applicable and can be adapted to produce devices in which a variety of high aspect ratio, nanoporous silicon structures can be integrated within a microfluidic network. The devices shown here are amenable to being scaled in number and organized to implement more complex reaction systems for applications in sensing and actuation as well as fundamental studies of biological reaction systems.

Cell adhesion property affected by cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase: Opto-electric approach.

Expression of cyclooxygenases (COX) and lipoxygenases (LOX) has been linked to many pathophysiological phenotypes, including cell adhesion. However, many current approaches to measure cellular changes are performed only in a fixed-time point. Since cells dynamically move in conjunction with the cell matrix, there is a pressing need for dynamic or time-dependent methods for the investigation of cell properties. In the presented study, we used stable human colorectal cancer cell lines ectopically expressing COX-1, COX-2, and 15LOX-1, to investigate whether expression of COX-1, COX-2, or 15LOX-1 would affect cell adhesion using our opto-electric methodology. In a fixed-time point experiment, only COX-1- and COX-2-expressing cells enhanced phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase, but all the transfected cells showed invasion activity. However, in a real-time experiment using opto-electric approaches, transmitted cellular morphology was much different with tight adhesion being shown in COX-2 expressing cells, as imaged by differential interference contrast microscopy (DICM) and interference reflection contrast microscopy (IRCM). Furthermore, micro-impedance measurements showed a continued increase in both resistance and reactance of COX- and LOX-transfected cells, consistent with the imaging data. Our data indicate that both COX- and LOX-expressing cells have strong cell-to-cell and cell-to-substrate adhesions, and that cell imaging analysis with cell impedance data generates fully reliable results on cell adhesion measurement.

ESE-1/EGR-1 pathway plays a role in tolfenamic acid-induced apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are known to prevent colorectal tumorigenesis. Although antitumor effects of NSAIDs are mainly due to inhibition of cyclooxygenase activity, there is increasing evidence that cyclooxygenase-independent mechanisms may also play an important role. The early growth response-1 (EGR-1) gene is a member of the immediate-early gene family and has been identified as a tumor suppressor gene. Tolfenamic acid is a NSAID that exhibits anticancer activity in a pancreatic cancer model. In the present study, we investigated the anticancer activity of tolfenamic acid in human colorectal cancer cells. Tolfenamic acid treatment inhibited cell growth and induced apoptosis as measured by caspase activity and bioelectric impedance. Tolfenamic acid induced EGR-1 expression at the transcription level, and analysis of the EGR-1 promoter showed that a putative ETS-binding site, located at -400 and -394 bp, was required for activation by tolfenamic acid. The electrophoretic mobility shift assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay confirmed that this sequence specifically bound to the ETS family protein epithelial-specific ETS-1 (ESE-1) transcription factor. Tolfenamic acid also facilitated translocation of endogenous and exogenous ESE-1 to the nucleus in colorectal cancer cells, and gene silencing using ESE-1 small interfering RNA attenuated tolfenamic acid-induced EGR-1 expression and apoptosis. Overexpression of EGR-1 increased apoptosis and decreased bioelectrical impedance, and silencing of endogenous EGR-1 prevented tolfenamic acid-induced apoptosis. These results show that activation of ESE-1 via enhanced nuclear translocation mediates tolfenamic acid-induced EGR-1 expression, which plays a critical role in the activation of apoptosis.

An in-situ photocrosslinking microfluidic technique to generate non-spherical, cytocompatible, degradable, monodisperse alginate microgels for chondrocyte encapsulation.

Alginate microgels are widely generated by ionic crosslinking methods, but this method has limitations in controlling the microgel degradation and generating non-spherical microgels. By employing oxidized methacrylated alginate (OMA) that is degradable and photocrosslinkable, we have successfully photocrosslinked monodisperse OMA microgels and demonstrated the feasibility to generate discoid alginate microgels. However, several technical issues obstructed our opto-microfluidic method from being a useful technique. Here, we further characterized and optimized this method. Monodisperse discoid OMA microgels with good shape consistency were, for the first time, generated. The curability of OMA microgels was characterized as the macromer concentration varied from 2% to 10%, and the minimum required photoinitiator (VA-086) concentrations were determined. The effects of crosslinking density and the presence of ions in the storage solution on swelling of OMA hydrogels were identified to give insights into accurate controlling of the microgel size. A much quicker degradation rate (within three weeks) compared to ionically crosslinked alginate hydrogels was indirectly identified by quantifying the elastic modulus using atomic force microscopy. The viability of encapsulated chondrocytes in OMA microgels formed by this method was higher than those from other existing methods, demonstrating its favorable cytocompatibility. It was found that the oxygen tension played a critical role in both the curability of microgels and the cytocompatibility of this technique. We also summarize common practical issues and provide related solutions and/or operational suggestions. By this method, OMA microgels are expected to be valuable alternatives to traditional ionically crosslinked alginate microgels in drug delivery, tissue engineering, and single cell analysis areas due to their multiple favorable properties.

Observations of internal flow inside an evaporating nanofluid sessile droplet in the presence of an entrapped air bubble.

Using a unique, near-field microscopy technique, fringe patterns and nanoparticle motions are visualized immediately following a nanofluid droplet deposition on a glass substrate in which an air bubble is entrapped. The nanofluid consists of DI-water, 0.10% Aluminum Oxide nanoparticles with an average diameter of 50 nm, and 0.0005% yellow-green polystyrene fluorescent particles of 1 µm diameter. High-speed, fluorescent-mode confocal imaging enables investigation of depth-wise sectioned particle movements in the nanofluid droplet inside which a bubble is entrapped. The static contact angle is increased when a bubble is applied. In the presence of the bubble in the droplet, the observed flow toward the center of the droplet is opposite to the flow observed in a droplet without the bubble. When the bubble is present, the evaporation process is retarded. Also, random motion is observed in the contact line region instead of the typical evaporation-driven flow toward the droplet edge. Once the bubble bursts, however, the total evaporation time decreases due to the change in the contact line characteristics. Moreover, the area of fringe patterns beneath the bubble increases with time. Discussed herein is a unique internal flow that has not been observed in nanofluid droplet evaporation.

In-situ photopolymerization of monodisperse and discoid oxidized methacrylated alginate microgels in a microfluidic channel.

We present a simple microfluidic technique to in-situ photopolymerize (by 365 nm ultraviolet) monodisperse oxidized methacrylated alginate (OMA) microgels using a photoinitiator (VA-086). By this technique, we generated monodisperse spherical OMA beads and discoid non-spherical beads with better shape consistency than ionic crosslinking methods do. We found that a high monomer concentration (8 w/v %), a high photoinitiator concentration (1.5 w/v %), and absence of oxygen are critical factors to cure OMA microgels. This photopolymerizing method is an alternative to current methods to form alginate microgels and is a simpler approach to generate non-spherical alginate microgels.

Biophysical evaluation of cells on nanotubular surfaces: the effects of atomic ordering and chemistry.

After the implantation of a biomaterial in the body, the first interaction occurs between the cells in contact with the biomaterial surface. Therefore, evaluating the cell-substrate interface is crucial for designing a successful implant. In this study, the interaction of MC3T3 osteoblasts was studied on commercially pure and alloy (Ti6Al4V) Ti surfaces treated with amorphous and crystalline titanium dioxide nanotubes. The results indicated that the presence of nanotubes increased the density of osteoblast cells in comparison to bare surfaces (no nanotubes). More importantly, our finding shows that the chemistry of the substrate affects the cell density rather than the morphology of the cells. A novel approach based on the focused ion beam technique was used to investigate the biophysical cell-substrate interaction. The analysis revealed that portions of the cells migrated inside the crystalline nanotubes. This observation was correlated with the super hydrophilic properties of the crystalline nanotubes.

A novel miniature dynamic microfluidic cell culture platform using electro-osmosis diode pumping.

An electro-osmosis (EOS) diode pumping platform capable of culturing cells in fluidic cellular micro-environments particularly at low volume flow rates has been developed. Diode pumps have been shown to be a viable alternative to mechanically driven pumps. Typically electrokinetic micro-pumps were limited to low-concentration solutions (≤10 mM). In our approach, surface mount diodes were embedded along the sidewalls of a microchannel to rectify externally applied alternating current into pulsed direct current power across the diodes in order to generate EOS flows. This approach has for the first time generated flows at ultra-low flow rates (from 2.0 nl/s to 12.3 nl/s) in aqueous solutions with concentrations greater than 100 mM. The range of flow was generated by changing the electric field strength applied to the diodes from 0.5 Vpp/cm to 10 Vpp/cm. Embedding an additional diode on the upper surface of the enclosed microchannel increased flow rates further. We characterized the diode pump-driven fluidics in terms of intensities and frequencies of electric inputs, pH values of solutions, and solution types. As part of this study, we found that the growth of A549 human lung cancer cells was positively affected in the microfluidic diode pumping system. Though the chemical reaction compromised the fluidic control overtime, the system could be maintained fully functional over a long time if the solution was changed every hour. In conclusion, the advantage of miniature size and ability to accurately control fluids at ultra-low volume flow rates can make this diode pumping system attractive to lab-on-a-chip applications and biomedical engineering in vitro studies.

Surface charge- and space-dependent transport of proteins in crowded environments of nanotailored posts.

The reaction and diffusion of molecules across barriers and through crowded environments is integral to biological system function and to separation technologies. Ordered, microfabricated post arrays are a promising route to creating synthetic barriers with controlled chemical and physical characteristics. They can be used to create crowded environments, to mimic aspects of cellular membranes, and to serve as engineered replacements of polymer-based separation media. Here, the translational diffusion of fluorescein isothiocyante and various forms of green fluorescent protein (GFP), including "supercharged" variants, are examined in a silicon-based post array environment. The technique of fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) is combined with analytical approximations and numerical simulations to assess the relative effects of reaction and diffusion on molecular transport, respectively. FRAP experiments were conducted for 64 different cases where the molecular species, the density of the posts, and the chemical surface charge of the posts were varied. In all cases, the dense packing of the posts hindered the diffusive transport of the fluorescent species. The supercharged GFPs strongly interacted with oppositely charged surfaces. With similar molecular and surface charges, transport is primarily limited by hindered diffusion. For conventional, enhanced GFP in a positively charged surface environment, transport was limited by the coupled action of hindered diffusion and surface interaction with the posts. Quantification of the size-, space-, time-, and charge-dependent translational diffusion in the post array environments can provide insight into natural processes and guide the design and development of selective membrane systems.

Cell Free Translation in Engineered Picoliter Volume Containers.

Engineers seek to use biological design principles to manipulate information and import new functionality to synthetic devices. Such devices inspired by natural systems could, in turn, play a crucial role in allowing biologists to explore the effects of physical transport and extreme conditions of temperature and pH on reaction systems. For example, engineered reaction containers can be physically and chemically defined to control the flux of molecules of different sizes and charge. The design and testing of such a container is described here. It has a volume of 19pL with defined slits of 200nm. The device successfully contained DNA and protein molecules and is evaluated for carrying out cell-free protein synthesis. The effect of DNA concentration and slit size on protein yield is discussed.

Optoelectric biosensor using indium-tin-oxide electrodes.

The use of an optically thin indium-tin-oxide (ITO) electrode is presented for an optoelectric biosensor simultaneously recording optical images and microimpedance to examine time-dependent cellular growth. The transmittance of a 100 nm thick ITO electrode layer is approximately the same as the transmittance of a clean glass substrate, whereas the industry-standard Au(47.5 nm)/Ti(2.5 nm) electrode layer drops the transmittance to less than 10% of that of the glass substrate. The simultaneous optoelectric measurements permit determining the correlation of the cell-covered area increase with the microimpedance increase, and the example results obtained for live porcine pulmonary artery endothelial cells delineate the quantitative and comprehensive nature of cellular attachment and spreading to the substrate, which has not been clearly perceived before.