Chromosome-Scale Genome Assembly and Triterpenoid Saponin Biosynthesis in Korean Bellflower (Platycodon grandiflorum).

Platycodon grandiflorum belongs to the Campanulaceae family and is an important medicinal and food plant in East Asia. However, on the whole, the genome evolution of P. grandiflorum and the molecular basis of its major biochemical pathways are poorly understood. We reported a chromosome-scale genome assembly of P. grandiflorum based on a hybrid method using Oxford Nanopore Technologies, Illumina sequences, and high-throughput chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) analysis. The assembled genome was finalized as 574 Mb, containing 41,355 protein-coding genes, and the genome completeness was assessed as 97.6% using a Benchmarking Universal Single-Copy Orthologs analysis. The P. grandiflorum genome comprises nine pseudo-chromosomes with 56.9% repeat sequences, and the transcriptome analysis revealed an expansion of the 14 beta-amylin genes related to triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis. Our findings provide an understanding of P. grandiflorum genome evolution and enable genomic-assisted breeding for the mass production of important components such as triterpenoid saponins.

First Contiguous Genome Assembly of Japanese Lady Bell (Adenophora triphylla) and Insights into Development of Different Leaf Types.

Adenophora triphylla is an important medicinal and food plant found in East Asia. This plant is rich in secondary metabolites such as triterpenoid saponin, and its leaves can develop into different types, such as round and linear, depending on the origin of germination even within the same species. Despite this, few studies have comprehensively characterized the development processes of different leaf types and triterpenoid saponin pathways in this plant. Herein, we provide the first report of a high-quality genome assembly of A. triphylla based on a combination of Oxford Nanopore Technologies and Illumina sequencing methods. Its genome size was estimated to be 2.6 Gb, and the assembled genome finalized as 2.48 Gb, containing 57,729 protein-coding genes. Genome completeness was assessed as 95.6% using the Benchmarking Universal Single-Copy Orthologs score. The evolutionary divergence of A. triphylla was investigated using the genomes of five plant species, including two other species in the Campanulaceae family. The species A. triphylla diverged approximately 51-118 million years ago from the other four plants, and 579 expanded/contracted gene families were clustered in the Gene Ontology terms. The expansion of the ß-amyrin synthase (bAS) gene, a key enzyme in the triterpenoid saponin pathway, was identified in the A. triphylla genome. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis of the two leaf types revealed differences in the activity of starch, sucrose, unsaturated fatty acid pathways, and oxidoreductase enzymes. The heat and endoplasmic reticulum pathways related to plant stress were active in the development of round type leaf, while an enhancement of pyrimidine metabolism related to cell development was confirmed in the development of the linear type leaf. This study provides insight into the evolution of bAS genes and the development of different leaf types in A. triphylla.

Efficacy of different washing solutions and contact times on the microbial quality and safety of fresh-cut paprika.

The role of different washing solutions and contact times was investigated to determine their use as potential sanitizers for maintaining the microbial quality and food safety of fresh-cut paprika. Samples were cut into small pieces, washed for both 90 and 180 s by different washing solutions: tap water, chlorinated water (100 mg/L and pH 6.5-7), electrolyzed water (pH 7.2) and ozonized water (4 mg/L). Then, samples were packaged in 50 µm polypropylene bags and stored at 5 °C for 12 days, followed by an evaluation of the antimicrobial efficacy of the treatments. Various quality and safety parameters, such as gas composition, color, off-odor, electrical conductivity and microbial numbers, were evaluated during storage. Results revealed insignificant differences in gas composition, and no off-odor was observed in any of the samples during the storage period. However, longer contact time resulted in slightly lower hue angle value than a short one for all washing solutions. Moreover, samples washed with ozone washings showed lower electrolyte leakage than other washing solutions. Samples washed for longer contact time except those washed in ozonized water showed increased microbial numbers during storage. Hence, it has been concluded that longer contact time with ozone has positive effects, whereas the other washing solutions adversely affect the microbial quality and safety aspects of fresh-cut paprika.

Efficacy of chlorine and acidified sodium chlorite on microbial population and quality changes of spinach leaves.

Efficacy of washing with distilled water, chlorine solution, and acidified sodium chlorite (ASC) solution on populations of microorganisms on spinach leaves was evaluated. Washing with chlorine (100 mg/L) and ASC (sodium chlorite, 15 mg/L; citric acid, 200 mg/L) resulted in significant population reduction (1.1-1.9 log CFU/g) of aerobic microflora, coliform, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 (p < 0.05). There was no remarkable difference in decontamination efficacy between chlorine and ASC solution. In recent years, several sodium chlorite chemicals have been commercially available, and no difference in decontamination efficacy among the chemicals was observed when same concentration of sodium chlorite and citric acid were used. In addition, the reduction of E. coli O157:H7 population was influenced depending on the inoculation method and type of washing. It has been seen that dip-inoculated spinach leaves showed lower reduction than that of spot-inoculated spinach. After washing, populations of aerobic microflora, coliform, and E. coli O157:H7 were increased during storage at 10 degrees C, and washing condition before storage did not affect the subsequent increases in microbial population. Color of spinach leaves washed with ASC solution was not different from the color of those washed with water or chlorine solution, and washing with ASC solution was concluded to has no effect on appearance of spinach leaves.

Assembly of the Mitochondrial Genome in the Campanulaceae Family Using Illumina Low-Coverage Sequencing.

Platycodongrandiflorus (balloon flower) and Codonopsislanceolata (bonnet bellflower) are important herbs used in Asian traditional medicine, and both belong to the botanical family Campanulaceae. In this study, we designed and implemented a de novo DNA sequencing and assembly strategy to map the complete mitochondrial genomes of the first two members of the Campanulaceae using low-coverage Illumina DNA sequencing data. We produced a total of 28.9 Gb of paired-end sequencing data from the genomic DNA of P.grandiflorus (20.9 Gb) and C.lanceolata (8.0 Gb). The assembled mitochondrial genome of P.grandiflorus was found to consist of two circular chromosomes; the master circle contains 56 genes, and the minor circle contains 42 genes. The C.lanceolata mitochondrial genome consists of a single circle harboring 54 genes. Using a comparative genome structure and a pattern of repeated sequences, we show that the P.grandiflorus minor circle resulted from a recombination event involving the direct repeats of the master circle. Our dataset will be useful for comparative genomics and for evolutionary studies, and will facilitate further biological and phylogenetic characterization of species in the Campanulaceae.

Re-exploration of U's Triangle Brassica Species Based on Chloroplast Genomes and 45S nrDNA Sequences.

The concept of U's triangle, which revealed the importance of polyploidization in plant genome evolution, described natural allopolyploidization events in Brassica using three diploids [B. rapa (A genome), B. nigra (B), and B. oleracea (C)] and derived allotetraploids [B. juncea (AB genome), B. napus (AC), and B. carinata (BC)]. However, comprehensive understanding of Brassica genome evolution has not been fully achieved. Here, we performed low-coverage (2-6×) whole-genome sequencing of 28 accessions of Brassica as well as of Raphanus sativus [R genome] to explore the evolution of six Brassica species based on chloroplast genome and ribosomal DNA variations. Our phylogenomic analyses led to two main conclusions. (1) Intra-species-level chloroplast genome variations are low in the three allotetraploids (2~7 SNPs), but rich and variable in each diploid species (7~193 SNPs). (2) Three allotetraploids maintain two 45SnrDNA types derived from both ancestral species with maternal dominance. Furthermore, this study sheds light on the maternal origin of the AC chloroplast genome. Overall, this study clarifies the genetic relationships of U's triangle species based on a comprehensive genomics approach and provides important genomic resources for correlative and evolutionary studies.

Gene network underlying the response of harvested pepper to chilling stress.

Cold storage is an effective postharvest control strategy to maintain the freshness of vegetables by suppressing respiration. However, subtropical plants including pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) undergo chilling injury. To better understand the molecular mechanisms involved in preventing chilling injury, transcriptome profiling analysis of peppers stored in a cold chamber and treated with 50µM methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and 1µLL-1 1-methylcyclopropene as an ethylene reaction inhibitor was performed. A total of 240, 470, and 290 genes were upregulated and 184, 291, and 219 genes down-regulated in cold-, MeJA- and 1-methylcyclopropene-treated peppers, respectively. MeJA-treated peppers had significant transcriptome changes compared to cold- and 1-MCP-treated peppers after 24h of storage. MeJA treatment upregulated the genes for peroxidase and catalase related to stress responses, as well as the ethylene-responsive factor (ERF) family and MAP kinase involved in ethylene signaling factors in peppers. Functional analysis revealed that in comparison with wild type plants, ERF1-expressing plants showed a higher antioxidant capacity and enhanced expression levels of oxidative stress-related and jasmonic acid synthesis-related genes during chilling storage conditions. Additionally, ERFs and JA biosynthesis gene expression in peppers during long-term cold storage was upregulated by MeJA. Thus, MeJA enables peppers to respond to cold stress and ethylene signaling, and this could help to prevent chilling injury. Our results suggest that ethylene signaling and JA synthesis share the reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger-mediated stress adaption system during chilling stress in pepper. In addition, these findings provide a global insight into the genetic basis for preventing chilling injury in subtropical crops.

A Multi-Layered Screening Method to Identify Plant Regulatory Genes.

We used a seven-step process to identify genes involved in glucosinolate biosynthesis and metabolism in the Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa). We constructed an annotated data set with 34,570 unigenes from B. rapa and predicted 11,526 glucosinolate-related candidate genes using expression profiles generated across nine stages of development on a 47k-gene microarray. Using our multi-layered screening method, we screened 392 transcription factors, 843 pathway genes, and 4,162 ortholog genes associated with glucosinolate-related biosynthesis. Finally, we identified five genes by comparison of the pathway-network genes including the transcription-factor genes and the ortholog-ontology genes. The five genes were anchored to the chromosomes of B. rapa to characterize their genetic-map positions, and phylogenetic reconstruction with homologous genes was performed. These anchored genes were verified by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. While the five genes identified by our multi-layered screen require further characterization and validation, our study demonstrates the power of multi-layered screening after initial identification of genes on microarrays.

A multistep screening method to identify genes using evolutionary transcriptome of plants.

We introduced a multistep screening method to identify the genes in plants using microarrays and ribonucleic acid (RNA)-seq transcriptome data. Our method describes the process for identifying genes using the salt-tolerance response pathways of the potato (Solanum tuberosum) plant. Gene expression was analyzed using microarrays and RNA-seq experiments that examined three potato lines (high, intermediate, and low salt tolerance) under conditions of salt stress. We screened the orthologous genes and pathway genes involved in salinity-related biosynthetic pathways, and identified nine potato genes that were candidates for salinity-tolerance pathways. The nine genes were selected to characterize their phylogenetic reconstruction with homologous genes of Arabidopsis thaliana, and a Circos diagram was generated to understand the relationships among the selected genes. The involvement of the selected genes in salt-tolerance pathways was verified by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis. One candidate potato gene was selected for physiological validation by generating dehydration-responsive element-binding 1 (DREB1)-overexpressing transgenic potato plants. The DREB1 overexpression lines exhibited increased salt tolerance and plant growth when compared to that of the control. Although the nine genes identified by our multistep screening method require further characterization and validation, this study demonstrates the power of our screening strategy after the initial identification of genes using microarrays and RNA-seq experiments.

PlantGI: a database for searching gene indices in agricultural plants developed at NIAB, Korea.

UNLABELLED: The Plant Gene Index (PlantGI) database is developed as a web-based search system with search capabilities for keywords to provide information on gene indices specifically for agricultural plants. The database contains specific Gene Index information for ten agricultural species, namely, rice, Chinese cabbage, wheat, maize, soybean, barley, mushroom, Arabidopsis, hot pepper and tomato. PlantGI differs from other Gene Index databases in being specific to agricultural plant species and thus complements services from similar other developments. The database includes options for interactive mining of EST CONTIGS and assembled EST data for user specific keyword queries. The current version of PlantGI contains a total of 34,000 EST CONTIGS data for rice (8488 records), wheat (8560 records), maize (4570 records), soybean (3726 records), barley (3417 records), Chinese cabbage (3602 records), tomato (1236 records), hot pepper (998 records), mushroom (130 records) and Arabidopsis (8 records). AVAILABILITY: The database is available for free at http://www.niab.go.kr/nabic/.