A Casino goes smoke free: a longitudinal study of secondhand and thirdhand smoke pollution and exposure.

BACKGROUND: Secondhand smoke (SHS) in US casinos is common, but little is known about the residue of tobacco smoke pollutants left behind in dust and on surfaces, commonly referred to as thirdhand smoke (THS). We examined SHS and THS pollution and exposure before and during a casino smoking ban and after smoking resumed. METHODS: A casino was visited nine times over a 15-month period to collect dust, surface and air samples in eight locations. Finger wipe and urine samples were collected from non-smoking confederates before and after a 4-hour casino visit. Samples were analysed for markers of SHS and THS pollution and exposure. RESULTS: Exceptionally high levels of THS were found in dust and on surfaces. Although the smoking ban led to immediate improvements in air quality, surface nicotine levels were unchanged and remained very high for the first month of the smoking ban. Surface nicotine decreased by 90% after 1 month (P<0.01), but nicotine and tobacco-specific nitrosamines in dust decreased more slowly, declining by 90% only after 3 months (P<0.01). Exposure was significantly reduced after the ban, but the benefits of the ban were reversed after smoking resumed. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term smoking in a casino creates deep THS reservoirs that persist for months after a smoking ban. A complete smoking ban immediately improves air quality and significantly reduces exposure to SHS and THS. However, THS reservoirs contribute to continued low-level exposure to toxicants. To accelerate the effect of smoking bans, remediation efforts should address specific THS reservoirs, which may require intensive cleaning as well as replacement of carpets, furniture and building materials.

Small, Smart, Fast, and Cheap: Microchip-Based Sensors to Estimate Air Pollution Exposures in Rural Households.

Over the last 20 years, the Kirk R. Smith research group at the University of California Berkeley-in collaboration with Electronically Monitored Ecosystems, Berkeley Air Monitoring Group, and other academic institutions-has developed a suite of relatively inexpensive, rugged, battery-operated, microchip-based devices to quantify parameters related to household air pollution. These devices include two generations of particle monitors; data-logging temperature sensors to assess time of use of household energy devices; a time-activity monitoring system using ultrasound; and a CO2-based tracer-decay system to assess ventilation rates. Development of each system involved numerous iterations of custom hardware, software, and data processing and visualization routines along with both lab and field validation. The devices have been used in hundreds of studies globally and have greatly enhanced our understanding of heterogeneous household air pollution (HAP) concentrations and exposures and factors influencing them.

Fine aerosol and PAH carcinogenicity estimation in outdoor environment of Mumbai City, India.

Exposure to fine particles has been shown to cause severe human health impacts. In the present study, outdoor fine particles as well as elemental and organic carbon concentrations were measured in four locations within Mumbai city, India, during 2007-2008. The average outdoor PM(2.5) mass concentrations at control, kerb, residential and industrial sites were 69 ± 21, 84 ± 32, 89 ± 34, 95 ± 36 µg/m(3). In addition, fine particle PAHs were measured during the post monsoon season. The sum of PAHs in PM(2.5) at same above four sites were 35.27 ± 2.10, 42.96 ± 2.49, 175.76 ± 8.95 and 90.78 ± 4.74 ng/m(3), respectively. Estimating the carcinogenic potential of PAHs with equivalents of Benzo(a)pyrene (BaPE). The maximum value of BaPE (18.8) was reported in the residential site. A trend of lung cancer cases in Mumbai city is also presented. This was a preliminary study in understanding the health effects of PAHs in Mumbai city.

Association between particulate matter air pollution and heart attacks in San Diego County.

Air pollution is one of the major risk factors contributing to adverse public health outcomes worldwide. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has been repeatedly associated with increased risk of cardiovascular events, including heart attacks. Because PM2.5 is unequally distributed with elevated concentrations near high-traffic and industrial zones, PM2.5 is an environmental justice issue of major public health concern. In this study, we reviewed the relationship between PM2.5, emergency visits due to heart attacks, and environmental justice in San Diego County using data from CalEnviroScreen 3.0. Our results indicate that PM2.5, diesel PM emissions, and emergency visits due to heart attacks are weakly, but positively correlated (r = 0.3, R2 < 0.1). Areas classified as environmental justice communities, communities comprised more dominantly of nonwhite populations, and communities closer to the San Diego-Tijuana border are exposed disproportionately to air pollution in San Diego County. Overall, this work demonstrates that there is an association between elevated local PM concentrations in San Diego County communities with emergency hospital visits due to heart attacks, and that these associations are an environmental justice issue disproportionally affecting disadvantaged communities.Implications: Particulate matter is an adverse contributor to overall health throughout the lifespan, contributing to diseases such as asthma, hypertension, stroke, and increased risk of cardiovascular events. Here, we assess the relationship between particulate matter and heart attacks in San Diego County using CalEnviroScreen3.0. Using these tools, we also examine correlations between this relationship and different sociodemographic indicators such as age, race, income, and proximity to the high-traffic U.S.-Mexico border. Overall, we show that specific communities around San Diego are more highly exposed to particulate matter, and that these relationships may be disproportionately contributing to heart attacks in disadvantaged communities.

Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: urban land transport.

We used Comparative Risk Assessment methods to estimate the health effects of alternative urban land transport scenarios for two settings-London, UK, and Delhi, India. For each setting, we compared a business-as-usual 2030 projection (without policies for reduction of greenhouse gases) with alternative scenarios-lower-carbon-emission motor vehicles, increased active travel, and a combination of the two. We developed separate models that linked transport scenarios with physical activity, air pollution, and risk of road traffic injury. In both cities, we noted that reduction in carbon dioxide emissions through an increase in active travel and less use of motor vehicles had larger health benefits per million population (7332 disability-adjusted life-years [DALYs] in London, and 12 516 in Delhi in 1 year) than from the increased use of lower-emission motor vehicles (160 DALYs in London, and 1696 in Delhi). However, combination of active travel and lower-emission motor vehicles would give the largest benefits (7439 DALYs in London, 12 995 in Delhi), notably from a reduction in the number of years of life lost from ischaemic heart disease (10-19% in London, 11-25% in Delhi). Although uncertainties remain, climate change mitigation in transport should benefit public health substantially. Policies to increase the acceptability, appeal, and safety of active urban travel, and discourage travel in private motor vehicles would provide larger health benefits than would policies that focus solely on lower-emission motor vehicles.

Estimating personal PM2.5 exposures using CO measurements in Guatemalan households cooking with wood fuel.

As a part of a longitudinal study in the highlands of Guatemala to elicit the chronic health effects of wood smoke from cooking, mean area and personal 48 h concentrations of 2.5 microm particulate matter (PM2.5) and carbon monoxide (CO) were measured every 3 months over 19 months. Monitoring was conducted in 63 households, 28 using traditional open wood fires and 35 using wood cookstoves with chimneys. The goal of this paper is to estimate personal exposure concentrations to PM2.5 using the measurements from CO diffusion tubes as a proxy. CO tubes are cheaper and easier to use than PM-monitoring devices, and can be worn by all family members, even infants. The relationship of PM2.5 and CO was determined by comparing measurements from both co-located instruments. CO measurements in ppm were corrected for temperature and pressure to mass concentrations. PM2.5 exposure was modeled with the following linear regression created using measured concentrations: PM2.5 (mg m(-3)) = 0.10 (0.093, 0.12) x CO (mg m(-3)) + 0.067 (0.0069, 0.13), R(2) = 0.76. No significant difference was found between the separate regressions for open fires and cookstoves. No significant improvement was obtained by applying a mixed statistical model. The equation was used to estimate personal exposures of PM2.5 using personal CO measurements from CO tubes worn by women, infants under 18 months, and children 48-72 months. Estimated 48 h mean personal PM2.5 concentrations for mother, infants, and children in open-fire homes were 0.27 +/- 0.02, 0.20 +/- 0.02, and 0.16 +/- 0.02 mg m(-3) respectively. In chimney-stove homes, mothers and children experienced PM2.5 personal concentrations of 0.22 +/- 0.03 and 0.14 +/- 0.03 mg m(-3), respectively.

Promoting smoke-free homes: a novel behavioral intervention using real-time audio-visual feedback on airborne particle levels.

Interventions are needed to protect the health of children who live with smokers. We pilot-tested a real-time intervention for promoting behavior change in homes that reduces second hand tobacco smoke (SHS) levels. The intervention uses a monitor and feedback system to provide immediate auditory and visual signals triggered at defined thresholds of fine particle concentration. Dynamic graphs of real-time particle levels are also shown on a computer screen. We experimentally evaluated the system, field-tested it in homes with smokers, and conducted focus groups to obtain general opinions. Laboratory tests of the monitor demonstrated SHS sensitivity, stability, precision equivalent to at least 1 µg/m(3), and low noise. A linear relationship (R(2) = 0.98) was observed between the monitor and average SHS mass concentrations up to 150 µg/m(3). Focus groups and interviews with intervention participants showed in-home use to be acceptable and feasible. The intervention was evaluated in 3 homes with combined baseline and intervention periods lasting 9 to 15 full days. Two families modified their behavior by opening windows or doors, smoking outdoors, or smoking less. We observed evidence of lower SHS levels in these homes. The remaining household voiced reluctance to changing their smoking activity and did not exhibit lower SHS levels in main smoking areas or clear behavior change; however, family members expressed receptivity to smoking outdoors. This study established the feasibility of the real-time intervention, laying the groundwork for controlled trials with larger sample sizes. Visual and auditory cues may prompt family members to take immediate action to reduce SHS levels. Dynamic graphs of SHS levels may help families make decisions about specific mitigation approaches.

An inexpensive light-scattering particle monitor: field validation.

We have developed a small, light, passive, inexpensive, datalogging particle monitor called the "UCB" (University of California Berkeley particle monitor). Following previously published laboratory assessments, we present here results of tests of its performance in field settings at high particle concentrations. We demonstrate the mass sensitivity of the UCB in relation to gravimetric filter-based PM(2.5) mass estimates as well as commercial light-scattering instruments co-located in field chamber tests and in kitchens of wood-burning households. The coefficient of variation of the unadjusted UCB mass response in relation to gravimetric estimates was 15%. Although requiring adjustment for differences in sensitivity, inter-monitor performance was consistently high (r(2) > 0.99). Moreover, the UCB can consistently estimate PM(2.5) mass concentrations in wood-burning kitchens (Pearson r(2) = 0.89; N = 99), with good agreement between duplicate measures (Pearson r(2) = 0.94; N = 88). In addition, with appropriate cleaning of the sensing chamber, UCB mass sensitivity does not decrease with time when used intensively in open woodfire kitchens, demonstrating the significant potential of this monitor.