Surgery for internal rotation contracture in infancy may obviate the need for brachial plexus nerve reconstruction: early experience.

BACKGROUND: Shoulder internal rotation contracture and subluxation in the first year of life has long been recognized in some patients with brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI). Surgical management of shoulder pathology has traditionally been undertaken following nerve reconstruction as necessary. In some patients; however, shoulder pathology may impair or obscure functional neuromuscular recovery of the upper extremity. As a proof of concept, we report a highly selected subset of patients with BPBI in whom shoulder surgery undertaken before one year of age obviated the need for neuroma resection and nerve grafting. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed of all patients with upper trunk BPBI who underwent shoulder surgery before one year of age from 2015 to 2018. Upper extremity motor function was evaluated with preoperative and postoperative Active Movement Scale scores, Cookie tests, and the requirement for subsequent neuroma resection and nerve grafting. RESULTS: Fifteen patients with BPBI meeting the inclusion criteria underwent shoulder surgery (including a subscapularis slide and tendon transfers of the teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles) before 1 year of age. Preoperatively, no patients of the appropriate age passed the Cookie test for elbow flexion. Thirteen patients either passed the Cookie test or scored Active Movement Scale score 7 for elbow flexion at or before the last available follow-up undertaken at a median age of 3.4 [1.4, 5.2] years. One of those 13 patients underwent single fascicular distal nerve transfer to improve elbow flexion before subsequently passing the Cookie test. Two patients did not have sufficient follow-up to assess elbow flexion. CONCLUSION: Although the exact role of shoulder surgery in infancy for BPBI remains to be defined, the findings from this study provide proof of concept that early, targeted surgical treatment of the shoulder may obviate the need for brachial plexus nerve reconstruction in a highly selected group of infants with BPBI.

Evaluating the feasibility of implementing the Sup-ER protocol for infants with brachial plexus birth injury.

BACKGROUND: The Sup-ER protocol involves a repositioning program for infants with brachial plexus birth injury to position the shoulder in external rotation (ER) to address progressive loss in passive range of motion (PROM). The British Columbia Children's Hospital (BCCH) eligibility criteria for this protocol are infants aged 4-8 weeks with decreased shoulder ER PROM and/or Active Movement Scale (AMS) shoulder ER and/or supination scores ≤2. The resources needed to implement this protocol in large clinics have not been studied. PURPOSE: This study aims to evaluate the BCCH criteria that are used to identify appropriate candidates for the Sup-ER protocol. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study was conducted to identify the percentage of infants who would have been recommended the Sup-ER protocol based on their PROM and AMS scores between 4 and 8 weeks of age. METHODS: A sensitivity and specificity evaluation was used to describe the BCCH criteria's ability to identify infants in this historical cohort who went on to have incomplete shoulder function (ie, true positive) vs infants who had functional shoulder outcome at 9 months of age (ie, false positive). RESULTS: At a mean of 5.8 weeks (95% confidence interval [CI] 5.3, 6.3), 46 of the 87 (53%) infants satisfied the BCCH Sup-ER protocol criteria. Forty-four (51%) were female, half (n = 45) were left side affected, and 88% had upper plexus injury. The BCCH Sup-ER protocol criteria had sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 71% to identify infants with incomplete shoulder function. Removing the AMS supination ≤2 score criterion from the criteria improves the specificity to 84%, while sensitivity remains high (97%). CONCLUSIONS: Modifying the BCCH criteria to all infants aged 4-8 weeks with AMS shoulder ER ≤2 and/or decreased shoulder ER PROM improves the precision of identifying infants who would benefit from the Sup-ER protocol.

Prevalence and predictors of elbow flexion contractures during early childhood following brachial plexus birth injury.

BACKGROUND: Elbow flexion contracture development in school-age children with a brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI) is common. Reports indicate onset between 2 and 4 years; however, little is known about early childhood prevalence, development, and trajectory of these contractures. PURPOSE: To determine the prevalence and predictors of BPBI elbow flexion contractures during early childhood. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective cross-sectional study. METHODS: Demographic, diagnostic, treatment, and elbow contracture data were collected for children with a BPBI <4 years between 2015 and 2019 from a prospectively collected database. Spinal root motor contributions and injury were determined using Active Movement Scale (AMS) scores at 6 weeks of age and used to predict contracture development. RESULTS: Of the 171 children that met inclusion criteria, 87% (n = 149) had upper plexus injuries. The mean age at the time of evaluation for an elbow contracture was 21.4 ± 12.7 months. The prevalence of elbow flexion contractures was 22% (n = 38), with mean onset at 13.4 ± 11.0 months. Mean contracture degree was -10.8 ± -6.9 degrees with 76% (n = 29) <-10 degrees. AMS shoulder abduction, flexion, and external rotation; elbow flexion; forearm supination; and wrist extension scores at a mean 2.3 ± 1.4 months were significantly lower in children who developed elbow flexion contractures (p < 0.001). Logistic regression found that low AMS elbow flexion with high elbow extension scores were a significant (p < 0.003) predictor of elbow contracture development. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of elbow flexion contractures in early childhood is greater than previously understood. These findings indicate that C5-C6 injury affecting elbow flexion with relative preservation of elbow extension is a predictor of contracture development. Further research is needed to investigate the nature and sequelae of C5-C6 injury and its effects on elbow flexion contracture development.

Two congenital cases of pigmented epithelioid melanocytoma with unique clinical and genetic features.

Pigmented epithelioid melanocytomas (PEM) are intermediate-grade melanocytic lesions with frequent lymph node involvement and rare metastases that tend to follow an indolent course with a favorable outcome. We report two unique cases of congenital PEM with PRKCA fusion transcripts: a multifocal PEM with an aggressive incompletely resectable scalp tumor and a solitary palmar PEM with newly reported ITGB5-PRKCA fusion. Through these case reports and a summary of previously reported cases, we outline the spectrum of disease of PEM and highlight the key clinical and histopathologic features associated with PEM with PRKCA fusion transcripts. We also discuss the treatment options and suggest that surgical excision without further adjuvant systemic treatment is reasonable first-line therapy given the favorable prognosis.

Sensory Outcome in Children Following Microsurgery for Brachial Plexus Birth Injury.

PURPOSE: Studies are limited on sensory outcome in children with brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI). The purpose of this research was to evaluate the sensory function of the hand in children with BPBI who had microsurgical reconstruction of the brachial plexus. METHODS: The sensory thresholds of children with upper and total plexus injury were evaluated with the Weinstein Enhanced Sensory Test and a test of stereognosis. RESULTS: A total of 63 children participated (aged 10.92 ± 3.29 years), 24 (38%) of whom had abnormal sensory thresholds in the affected hand. Only 4 children had loss of protective sensation or higher thresholds. These 4 measurements were all identified in the territory of the superficial branch of the radial nerve. Twelve children with upper plexus (43%) and 12 (34%) with total plexus injury had sensory impairment in the affected hand. These proportions were not statistically different. Of all children evaluated, 18 (29%) had a lower stereognosis score in the affected hand compared with the unaffected hand. The proportions of children with impairment in stereognosis in the upper plexus group (n = 5; 18%) versus the total plexus group (n = 13; 37%) were not statistically different. Age at the time of assessment, sex, upper versus total plexus injury, number of root avulsions, subjective report of altered sensation, and Faces Pain Scale-Revised score were not related to sensory impairment in the affected hand. CONCLUSIONS: Sensory recovery in BPBI after microsurgical reconstruction in children with total plexus injury who had reconstruction of the lower trunk had the potential to achieve sensory recovery similar to their upper plexus counterparts. A large proportion of children achieve normal sensory outcome, and those who had deficits had mild impairments. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic IV.

Isolated cutaneous mucormycosis in a pediatric renal transplant recipient.

Mucormycosis is a rare and potentially life-threatening infection, typically affecting immunocompromised hosts. We report a case of an adolescent boy who developed primary isolated cutaneous mucormycosis in the early period following kidney transplantation. Surgical excision was performed using intraoperative fungal staining to obtain clear margins, followed by topical and systemic antifungal therapy. A skin graft was then applied to the excised area with good healing, and the patient made a full recovery.

Evaluation of pain in pediatric upper extremity conditions.

STUDY DESIGN: Narrative Review. INTRODUCTION: Hand surgeons and therapists play an important role in the early identification of children at risk of developing chronic or recurrent pain after an upper extremity injury. Early identification of children at risk of developing a pain syndrome is critical because their physical, psychological, and/or social functioning may decline quickly without proper management due to the multidimensional nature of pain. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: This article outlines one approach to evaluating upper extremity pain in children to help identify those with, or at risk of, chronic pain. METHODS: An assessment framework that recognizes the biological, sensory, emotional, and psychosocial components of pain is described. RESULTS: The key components of a screening evaluation include obtaining a detailed history and a thorough physical examination that involves: systematic upper extremity mapping of sensory thresholds, mapping of sensory disturbances, and screening of self-reported pain intensity, location, descriptors, and interference. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The evaluation approach described will enable hand therapists to identify children with upper extremity pain that are at risk of developing a chronic pain and make an early referral to a multidisciplinary pain team that provides education, pharmacological pain management, physical rehabilitation, and psychological treatments.

Subclinical Peroneal Neuropathy: A Common, Unrecognized, and Preventable Finding Associated With a Recent History of Falling in Hospitalized Patients.

PURPOSE: Identification of modifiable risk factors for falling is paramount in reducing the incidence and morbidity of falling. Peroneal neuropathy with an overt foot drop is a known risk factor for falling, but research into subclinical peroneal neuropathy (SCPN) resulting from compression at the fibular head is lacking. The purpose of our study was to determine the prevalence of SCPN in hospitalized patients and establish whether it is associated with a recent history of falling. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study of 100 medical inpatients at a large academic tertiary care hospital in St Louis, Missouri. General medical inpatients deemed at moderate to high risk for falling were enrolled in the summer of 2013. Patients were examined for findings that suggest peroneal neuropathy, fall risk, and a history of falling. Multivariate logistic regression was used to correlate SCPN with fall risk and a history of falls in the past year. RESULTS: The mean patient age was 53 years (SD = 13 years), and 59 patients (59%) were female. Thirty-one patients had examination findings consistent with SCPN. After accounting for various confounding variables within a multivariate logistic regression model, patients with SCPN were 4.7 times (95% CI, 1.4-15.9) more likely to report having fallen 1 or more times in the past year. CONCLUSIONS: Subclinical peroneal neuropathy is common in medical inpatients and is associated with a recent history of falling. Preventing or identifying SCPN in hospitalized patients provides an opportunity to modify activity and therapy, potentially reducing risk.

Impact of flap reconstruction on perineal wound complications following ablative surgery for advanced and recurrent rectal cancers.

BACKGROUND: To determine the effect of flap reconstruction on perineal complications in locally advanced rectal cancers (LARC) and locally recurrent rectal cancers (LRRC). Prior studies have suggested that flap reconstruction may decrease wound complications after ablative surgery for rectal cancer but are limited by small sample sizes, heterogeneity of pathologies, and lack of comparison groups. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study (1999-2010) was performed on consecutive patients undergoing abdominoperineal resection (APR) or pelvic exenteration for locally advanced/locally recurrent rectal cancers. Differences in perineal complications between patients treated with and without perineal flap reconstruction were analyzed by using univariable, multivariable, and propensity score regression analyses. RESULTS: Flap reconstruction was performed in 52 of 177 patients (29 %). Patients receiving flap reconstruction had multiple risk factors for perineal morbidity, including longer operative times and more complex procedures. In our final multivariable analyses that were stratified by type of ablative procedure, we found a trend toward lower odds of perineal complications in patients receiving flaps (p = 0.065) compared with primary closure after pelvic exenteration. Although operative time and sacrectomy were significant determinants of perineal morbidity for pelvic exenteration patients, no significant predictors of perineal outcomes were identified for patients undergoing APR. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that flap reconstruction may provide some protective effect against perineal complications in patients undergoing pelvic exenteration, although this was not observed for APR. The most important determinants of perineal complications after pelvic exenteration were operative time and sacral resection, but no predictive factors for post-APR perineal outcomes were identified.

Comparison of Surgical Wait Times and Procedure Length in the Management of Postaxial Polydactyly Using Local or General Anesthesia.

Introduction: For infants with ulnar polydactyly, surgical removal of the supernumerary digit can be performed under general or local anesthetic. This study evaluated the wait times, surgical duration, and sedation times associated with performing the procedure under local versus general anesthetic in infants with ulnar polydactyly. Methods: The databases of three surgeons at our institution were reviewed for children less than 2 years of age who underwent surgery for non-syndromic ulnar polydactyly. Data collection included patient demographics, wait times, duration of surgery and sedation and complications. Results: The study included children (n = 55) who received treatment under local (n = 22) or general (n = 33) anesthesia. The wait times for the local anesthetic group were significantly shorter than the general anesthetic group (p < 0.05) for: referral to first consultation appointment; referral to surgery date, and decision date to surgery date. The duration of surgery (17.9 ± 6.9 vs 36.6 ± 20.2 min) and sedation time (26.3 ± 11.1 vs 74.8 ± 29.1 min) were significantly shorter in the local anaesthetic group (p < 0.05). There were no differences in complication rates between the groups. Conclusion: In this single-institution retrospective analysis, treatment of non-syndromic ulnar polydactyly with local anesthetic and bottle sedation was associated with shorter wait times, and duration of surgery and sedation. Level of Evidence: III, retrospective chart review and quality improvement initiative.

Introduction : Chez les nourrissons présentant une polydactylie cubitale, il est possible de procéder à l'ablation chirurgicale du doigt excédentaire sous anesthésie locale ou générale. La présente étude visait à évaluer les temps d'attente, la durée de l'opération et la durée de la sédation associés à l'intervention lorsqu'elle était effectuée sous anesthésie locale ou générale chez les nourrissons présentant une polydactylie cubitale. méthodes : Les chercheurs ont fouillé les bases de données de trois chirurgiens de leur établissement pour en extraire les cas d'enfants de moins de deux ans ayant subi une opération de la polydactylie cubitale non syndromique. La collecte de données incluait les caractéristiques des patients, les temps d'attente, la durée de l'opération et de la sédation et les complications. Résultats : La présente étude incluait des enfants (n=55) qui avaient été traités sous anesthésie locale (n=22) ou générale (n=33). Le temps d'attente du groupe sous anesthésie locale était beaucoup plus court que celui du groupe sous anesthésie générale (p<0,05) pour ce qui est de la période entre l'orientation et la première consultation, l'orientation et la date de l'opération, ainsi que la date de la décision et la date de l'opération. La durée de l'opération (17,9 ± 6,9 minutes par rapport à 36,6 ± 20,2 minutes) et de la sédation (26,3 ± 11,1 minutes par rapport à 74,8 ± 29,1 minutes) était beaucoup plus courte dans le groupe sous anesthésie locale (p<0,05). Il n'y avait pas de différence entre les groupes à l'égard des taux de complications. Conclusion : Dans cette analyse rétrospective mono-institutionnelle, le traitement de la polydactylie cubitale non syndromique accompagné d'une anesthésie locale et d'une sédation par bonbonne était associé à une diminution du temps d'attente ainsi que de la durée d'opération et de sédation.

Age and Sex Differences in Pediatric Neuropathic Pain and Complex Regional Pain Syndrome: A Scoping Review.

BACKGROUND: Age and sex differences may exist in the frequency (incidence, prevalence) or symptoms of neuropathic pain (NP) and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) due to biopsychosocial factors (eg, neurodevelopment, physiological and hormonal changes, psychosocial differences) that evolve through childhood and adolescence. Age and sex differences may have implications for evaluating screening and diagnostic tools and treatment interventions. OBJECTIVE: To map the existing literature on pediatric NP and CRPS with respect to age and sex distributions, and age and sex differences in symptomology and frequency. METHODS: A scoping literature review was conducted. Databases were searched from inception to January 2023. Data were collected on study design, setting, demographics, and age and sex differences in frequency and symptoms. RESULTS: Eighty-seven studies were included. Distribution of participants with CRPS (n=37 studies) was predominantly early adolescence (10 to 14 y) and female sex, while NP (n=42 studies) was most commonly reported throughout adolescence (10 to 19 y) in both sexes. Forty-one studies examined age and sex differences in frequency; 6 studies reported higher frequency in adolescence. Very few studies (n=11) examined differences in symptomology. DISCUSSION: Large epidemiological studies are required to further understand age and sex differences in frequency of pediatric NP and CRPS. Age and sex differences must be considered when evaluating screening and diagnostic tools and treatment interventions to ensure relevance and validity to both sexes and across ages. Validated tools will improve understanding of age-dependent and sex-dependent differences in symptoms, pathophysiology, and psychosocial impact of pediatric NP and CRPS.

Median to radial nerve transfers for restoration of wrist, finger, and thumb extension.

Radial nerve injury results in loss of wrist, finger, and thumb extension. Traditionally, radial nerve palsies that fail to recover spontaneously have been reconstructed with tendon transfers or nerve grafts. Nerve transfers are a novel approach to the surgical management of Sunderland grade IV and V radial nerve injuries. We describe our technique for median to radial nerve transfers. In this procedure, the flexor digitorum superficialis nerve is transferred to the extensor carpi radialis brevis nerve for wrist extension, and the flexor carpi radialis nerve is transferred to the posterior interosseous nerve for finger and thumb extension. Our experience with these nerve transfers has demonstrated excellent outcomes up to 10 months after injury. Indeed, unlike tendon transfers, median to radial nerve transfers have the potential to restore normal radial nerve function, including independent finger motion. Tension-free nerve coaptation and postoperative motor re-education are critical factors to achieving these successful outcomes.

Revision carpal tunnel surgery: a 10-year review of intraoperative findings and outcomes.

PURPOSE: To evaluate intraoperative findings and outcomes of revision carpal tunnel release (CTR) and to identify predictors of pain outcomes. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of all adult patients undergoing revision CTR between 2001 and 2012. Patients were classified according to whether they presented with persistent, recurrent, or new symptoms. We compared study groups by baseline characteristics, intraoperative findings, and outcomes (strength and pain). Within each group, we analyzed changes in postoperative pinch strength, grip strength, and pain from baseline. Predictors of postoperative average pain were examined using both multivariable linear regression analyses and univariable logistic regression to calculate odds ratios of worsened or no change in pain. RESULTS: We performed revision CTR in 97 extremities (87 patients). Symptoms were classified as persistent in 42 hands, recurrent in 19, and new in 36. The recurrent group demonstrated more diabetes and a longer interval from primary CTR, and was less likely to present with pain. Incomplete release of the flexor retinaculum and scarring of the median nerve were common intraoperative findings over all. Nerve injury was more common in the new group. Postoperative pinch strength, grip strength, and pain significantly improved from baseline in all groups, apart from strength measures in the recurrent group. Persistent symptoms and more than 1 prior CTR had higher odds of not changing or worsening postoperative pain. Higher preoperative pain, use of pain medication, and workers' compensation were significant predictors of higher postoperative average pain. CONCLUSIONS: Carpal tunnel release may not always be entirely successful. Most patients improve after revision CTR, but a methodical approach to diagnosis and adherence to safe surgical principles are likely to improve outcomes. Symptom classification, number of prior CTRs, baseline pain, pain medications, and workers' compensation status are important predictors of pain outcomes in this population. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic III.

Elucidating children's understanding of brachial plexus birth injury.

Facilitating children's understanding of their medical condition can improve health outcomes and psychosocial well-being. To inform how medical information is delivered, an interpretive qualitative approach was used to explore children's understanding of their brachial plexus birth injury. In-depth interviews of children with brachial plexus birth injuries (n = 8) and their caregivers (n = 10) were conducted individually and as a child-caregiver dyad. Thematic analysis of interview data found that children primarily understood their injury through lived experiences of functional and psychosocial concerns related to movement and appearance of the affected limb, rather than medical information. Children's ability to learn about diagnostic and prognostic information was influenced by age, emotional readiness, and background knowledge. In receiving information about their medical condition, children needed greater support in understanding their prognosis and its implications on their future. These narratives indicate the importance of addressing the primary functional and psychosocial concerns to contextualize medical information and ascertain the emotional readiness of children with brachial plexus birth injuries in information delivery approaches.

Management of Brachial Plexus Birth Injury: The SickKids Experience.

This article describes the approach utilized by the multidisciplinary team at Sick Kids Hospital to evaluate and treat patients with brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI). This approach has been informed by more than 30 years of experience treating over 1,800 patients with BPBI and continues to evolve over time. The objective of this article is to provide readers with a practical overview of the Sick Kids approach to the management of infants with BPBI.

Recent Advances in the Treatment of Brachial Plexus Birth Injury.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After studying this article, the participant should be able to: 1. Describe methods of clinical evaluation for neurologic recovery in brachial plexus birth injury. 2. Understand the role of different diagnostic imaging modalities to evaluate the upper limb. 3. List nonsurgical strategies and surgical procedures to manage shoulder abnormality. 4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of microsurgical nerve reconstruction and distal nerve transfers in brachial plexus birth injury. 5. Recognize the prevalence of pain in this population and the need for greater sensory outcomes evaluation. SUMMARY: Brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI) results from closed traction injury to the brachial plexus in the neck during an infant's vertex passage through the birth canal. Although spontaneous upper limb recovery occurs in most instances of BPBI, some infants do not demonstrate adequate motor recovery within an acceptable timeline and require surgical intervention to restore upper limb function. This article reviews major advances in the management of BPBI in the past decade that include improved understanding of shoulder pathology and its impact on observed motor recovery, novel surgical techniques, new insights in sensory function and pain, and global efforts to develop standardized outcomes assessment scales.

Mental health and psychosocial support for children with upper limb musculoskeletal conditions.

This study describes mental health and psychosocial screening processes, access to care and interventions provided to children with upper limb musculoskeletal conditions. A cross-sectional e-survey study was conducted of 107 healthcare professionals who work with children with congenital hand and upper limb differences and brachial plexus birth injuries. Of them, 41 (38%) reported that they routinely screen for mental health and psychosocial concerns. Few (12%) reported the use of standardized outcome measures. In total, 51 (48%) healthcare professionals reported that there was a waiting list for mental health services at their institution. Collectively, healthcare professionals were unsatisfied with the staffing, access to care and types of interventions available. Reported barriers to care included the growing need for mental health support, lack of resources and poor continuity of care after referrals. Future research should focus on identifying and validating a mental health screening tool and investigating the processes affecting access to mental health care.Level of evidence: IV.

Vaginal reconstruction following radical surgery for colorectal malignancies: a systematic review of the literature.

INTRODUCTION: Vaginectomy is frequently indicated to ensure an adequate resection in rectal cancer. This paper reviews the success, complications, and functional results after various methods of vaginal reconstruction following resection for rectal tumors. METHODS: A systematic review of the literature was performed by using the MEDLINE database, Embase, and the Cochrane library (1990-2010). RESULTS: Eighteen papers were available to review. Fifty percent of all women who received a neovagina following vaginectomy returned to sexual activity postoperatively. The rectus abdominis myocutaneous (RAM) flap remains the most common method of vaginal reconstruction after surgery for colorectal cancer. Advantages include low operative morbidity, a wide arc of rotation, and ease of harvest. Alternatives to flap reconstruction of the vagina have limited indications because of higher morbidity rates. CONCLUSIONS: Preferred techniques for vaginal reconstruction following vaginectomy with colorectal cancer resection include RAM flaps for partial posterior vaginal defects and bilateral Gracilis myocutaneous flaps for complete vaginal excisions.

Mental health risk and protective factors associated with brachial plexus birth injuries: a scoping review.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this scoping review is to synthesize the current evidence on the risk and protective factors associated with mental health in children with brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI) and associated interventions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane databases were searched for reports on mental health in children with BPBI between 10 and 18 years. Risk and protective factors were charted using the VicHealth review and the Person-Environment-Occupation model. RESULTS: Of 732 records found, 133 full text reports were reviewed and 16 reports were included. Multiple mental health risks associated with BPBI were identified, while protective factors were largely unexplored. Person-related risks were most common including negative coping strategies (n = 8, 50%) and pain (n = 6, 38%). Most frequently reported environment and occupation risk factors were social difficulties (n = 9, 56%) and challenges with upper limb function and daily activities (n = 6, 38%). Good self-determination and/or self-concept (n = 5, 30%) was the most common protective factor. CONCLUSIONS: Research using a strengths-based approach is needed to elucidate protective factors and further understanding of the intersection of person and socio-cultural risk factors of mental health in children with BPBI.

Evidence on mental health in children with brachial plexus birth injury largely comes from studies of quality of life and functional-status outcomes, while direct reports of mental health outcome in these children are lacking.Mental health risk factors in children with brachial plexus birth injury are largely understood by clinicians and researchers as person-related factors, while the multidimensional nature of these risks is relatively unexplored.Further investigation of mental health protective factors, such as resiliency and self-determination, will foster a strengths-based approach to rehabilitation in children with brachial plexus birth injury.