DNA methylation in children with prenatal methamphetamine exposure and environmental adversity.

BACKGROUND: Methamphetamine (MA) use during pregnancy is a significant public health concern in the United States and affects long-term brain and behavioral development in children. We hypothesized that prenatal MA exposure would be related to greater DNA methylation of HSD11B2 and postnatal environmental stress. METHODS: The Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle Study (IDEAL), a longitudinal study of prenatal MA exposure enrolled mother-infant dyads in California, Hawaii, Iowa, and Oklahoma. Prenatal exposure was defined by maternal self-report and/or meconium toxicology screening. At ages 10-11 years, 100 children were assessed for drug exposure and DNA methylation of HSD11B2. Hierarchical linear models were used to determine the association between prenatal MA exposure and methylation of HSD11B2 at four CpG sites. RESULTS: Prenatal MA exposure (1.4% vs 0.31%, P < 0.01) and early childhood adversity (3.0 vs 2.0, P < 0.01) were associated with greater DNA methylation of HSD11B2 at the CpG2 site. The statistically significant effects of early childhood adversity (B = 0.11, P < 0.01) and prenatal MA exposure (B = 0.32, P = 0.03) on DNA methylation remained after adjusting for covariates. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal MA exposure is related to postnatal childhood adversity and epigenetic alterations in HSD11B2, an important gene along the stress response pathway suggesting prenatal and postnatal programming effects. IMPACT: Prenatal methamphetamine exposure has been associated with developmental issues in newborns, yet little is known about the stress pathophysiology of methamphetamine on neurobehavior. This is the first evidence that prenatal methamphetamine exposure acts as a stressor, confirming the third pathophysiology of methamphetamine exposure.

School-Aged Outcomes following Prenatal Methamphetamine Exposure: 7.5-Year Follow-Up from the Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle Study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between prenatal methamphetamine exposure (PME) and behavior problems at age 7.5 years and the extent to which early adversity mediated this relationship. STUDY DESIGN: The multicenter, longitudinal Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle study enrolled 412 mother-infant pairs at 4 sites. Methamphetamine-exposed participants (n = 204) were identified by self-report and/or gas chromatography/mass spectrometry confirmation of amphetamine and metabolites in infant meconium. Matched participants (n = 208) denied methamphetamine use and had a negative meconium screen. At the 7.5-year follow-up, 290 children with complete Child Behavior Checklist data and an early adversity index score were available for analysis (n = 146 exposed). RESULTS: PME was significantly associated with an increased early adversity index score (P < .001) and with increased externalizing, rule-breaking behavior, and aggressive behavior (P < .05). Early adversity was also associated with higher externalizing behavior scores. Early adversity significantly mediated the relationship between PME and behavioral problems. After adjusting the mediation model for sex, prenatal tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana exposures, and study site, the association of PME with early adversity remained significant. CONCLUSIONS: Though PME is associated with behavioral problems, early adversity may be a strong determinant of behavioral outcome for children exposed to methamphetamine in utero. Early adversity significantly mediated the relationship between PME and behavioral problems.

Effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure on behavioral and cognitive findings at 7.5 years of age.

OBJECTIVE: To examine child behavioral and cognitive outcomes after prenatal exposure to methamphetamine. STUDY DESIGN: We enrolled 412 mother-infant pairs (204 methamphetamine-exposed and 208 unexposed matched comparisons) in the Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle study. The 151 children exposed to methamphetamine and 147 comparisons who attended the 7.5-year visit were included. Exposure was determined by maternal self-report and/or positive meconium toxicology. Maternal interviews assessed behavioral and cognitive outcomes using the Conners' Parent Rating Scale-Revised: Short Form. RESULTS: After adjusting for covariates, children exposed to methamphetamine had significantly higher cognitive problems subscale scores than comparisons and were 2.8 times more likely to have cognitive problems scores that were above average on the Conners' Parent Rating Scale-Revised: Short Form. No association between prenatal methamphetamine exposure and behavioral problems, measured by the oppositional, hyperactivity, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder index subscales, were found. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal methamphetamine exposure was associated with increased cognitive problems, which may affect academic achievement and lead to increased negative behavioral outcomes.

Risk of neurobehavioral disinhibition in prenatal methamphetamine-exposed young children with positive hair toxicology results.

BACKGROUND: The objective was to evaluate the effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure (PME) and postnatal drug exposures identified by child hair analysis on neurobehavioral disinhibition at 6.5 years of age. METHODS: Mother-infant pairs were enrolled in the Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle (IDEAL) Study in Los Angeles, Honolulu, Tulsa, and Des Moines. PME was determined by maternal self-report and/or positive meconium results. At the 6.5-year follow-up visit, hair was collected and analyzed for methamphetamine, tobacco, cocaine, and cannabinoid markers. Child behavioral and executive function test scores were aggregated to evaluate child neurobehavioral disinhibition. Hierarchical linear regression models assessed the impact of PME, postnatal substances, and combined PME with postnatal drug exposures on the child's neurobehavioral disinhibition aggregate score. Past year caregiver substance use was compared with child hair results. RESULTS: A total of 264 children were evaluated. Significantly more PME children (n = 133) had hair positive for methamphetamine/amphetamine (27.1% versus 8.4%) and nicotine/cotinine (38.3% versus 25.2%) than children without PME (n = 131). Overall, no significant differences in analyte hair concentrations were noted between groups. Significant differences in behavioral and executive function were observed between children with and without PME. No independent effects of postnatal methamphetamine or tobacco exposure, identified by positive hair test, were noted and no additional neurobehavioral disinhibition was observed in PME children with postnatal drug exposures, as compared with PME children without postnatal exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Child hair testing offered a noninvasive means to evaluate postnatal environmental drug exposure, although no effects from postnatal drug exposure alone were seen. PME, alone and in combination with postnatal drug exposures, was associated with behavioral and executive function deficits at 6.5 years.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia and neurobehavioural outcomes at birth and 2 years in infants born before 30 weeks.

OBJECTIVE: To identify neurobehavioural risks in preterm infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) prior to hospital discharge. DESIGN AND PATIENTS: Longitudinal study of 676 newborns born before 30 weeks of gestation. SETTING: Nine university NICUs affiliated with six universities. All were Vermont Oxford Network (VON) participants. PATIENTS AND INTERVENTIONS: Infants were enrolled in the Neonatal Neurobehavior and Outcomes in Very Preterm Infants Study from April 2014 to June 2016. Prospective medical record reviews, VON definitions and criteria, and maternal interviews were used to collect maternal and neonatal medical variables and socioenvironmental data. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) at the time of hospital discharge; Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (Bayley-III) and Gross Motor Function Classification System at 2 years' corrected age. RESULTS: Infants with moderate/severe BPD were less attentive (Wald χ2 9.68, p=0.008), more lethargic (Wald χ2 9.91, p=0.007), with increased non-optimal reflexes (Wald χ2 7.37, p=0.025). Infants with moderate/severe BPD were more likely to have Bayley-III language and motor scores <85 (adjusted OR (aOR) 1.74, 95% CI 1.06 to 2.85, and aOR 2.06, 95% CI 1.10 to 3.85). Infants with both moderate/severe and mild BPD were more likely to have a cerebral palsy diagnosis (aOR 2.96, 95% CI 1.34 to 6.54, and aOR 2.81, 95% CI 1.32 to 5.99). CONCLUSIONS: BPD severity presents risks for poor neurodevelopment at NICU discharge and at age 2 years. Early identification of poorly regulated behaviour can provide critical information for early preventive and targeted interventions with potential to improve long-term outcomes.

Maternal depression and prenatal exposure to methamphetamine: neurodevelopmental findings from the infant development, environment, and lifestyle (ideal) study.

BACKGROUND: Maternal depression is associated with a higher incidence of behavioral problems in infants, but the effects of maternal depression as early as 1 month are not well characterized. The objective of this study is to determine the neurobehavioral effects of maternal depression on infants exposed and not exposed to methamphetamine (MA) using the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS). METHODS: Four hundred twelve mother-infant pairs were enrolled (MA = 204) and only biological mothers with custody of their child were included in the current analysis. At the 1-month visit (n = 126 MA-exposed; n = 193 MA-unexposed), the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) was administered, and the NNNS was administered to the infant. Exposure was identified by self-report and/or gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy confirmation of amphetamine and metabolites in newborn meconium. Unexposed subjects were matched, denied amphetamine use, and had negative meconium screens. General Linear Models tested the effects of maternal depression and prenatal MA exposure on NNNS, with significance accepted at P < .05. RESULTS: The MA group had an increased incidence of depression-positive diagnosis and increased depression scores on the BDI-II. After adjusting for covariates, MA exposure was associated with increased arousal and handling scores, and a decreased ability to self-regulate. Maternal depression was associated with higher autonomic stress and poorer quality of movement. No additional differences were observed in infants whose mothers were both depressed and used MA during pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: Maternal depression is associated with neurodevelopmental patterns of increased stress and decreased quality of movement, suggesting maternal depression influences neurodevelopment in infants as young as 1 month.

The effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure on childhood growth patterns from birth to 3 years of age.

We examined the effects of prenatal methamphetamine (MA) exposure on growth parameters from birth to age 3 years. The 412 subjects included (n = 204 exposed) were enrolled at birth in the Infant Development, Environment and Lifestyle study, a longitudinal study assessing the effects of prenatal MA exposure on childhood outcomes. Individual models were used to examine the effects of prenatal MA exposure on weight, head circumference, height, and weight-for-length growth trajectories. After adjusting for covariates, height trajectory was lower in the exposed versus the comparison children (p = 0.021) over the first 3 years of life. Both groups increased height on average by 2.27 cm per month by age 3 years. In term subjects, MA exposure was also associated with a lower height trajectory (p = 0.034), with both the exposed and comparison groups gaining 2.25 cm per month by age 3 years. There was no difference in weight, head circumference, or weight-for-length growth trajectories between the comparison and the exposed groups. Children exposed prenatally to MA have a modest decrease in height growth trajectory during the first 3 years of life with no observed difference in weight, head circumference, or weight-for-length trajectories.

Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and short-term maternal and infant medical outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: Examine maternal and infant medical outcomes of prenatal exposure to methamphetamine (MA). STUDY DESIGN: Four hundred and twelve mother-infant pairs (204 MA-exposed and 208 unexposed matched comparisons) were enrolled in the Infant Development, Environment and Lifestyle (IDEAL) study. Exposure was determined by maternal self-report during this pregnancy and/or positive meconium toxicology. Maternal interviews assessed prenatal drug use, pregnancy course, and sociodemographic information. Medical chart reviews provided medical history, obstetric complications, infant outcomes, and discharge placement. RESULTS: MA-using mothers were more likely to be poor, to have a psychiatric disorder/emotional illness and less prenatal care, and to be less likely to breast-feed their infant than comparison mothers. After adjusting for covariates, MA-exposed infants were more likely to exhibit poor suck, to have smaller head circumferences and length, to require neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admission, and to be referred to child protective services (CPS). Several outcomes previously reported from studies that lacked adequate control groups or adjustment for covariates were not significantly different in this study. CONCLUSION: Prenatal MA exposure is associated with maternal psychiatric disorder/emotional illness, poor suck, NICU admission, and CPS involvement, and MA-exposed infants were less likely to be breast-fed; however, the absence of many serious complications, such as fetal distress, chronic hypertension, preeclampsia, placenta previa, abruptio placentae, and cardiac defects, suggests confounding variables influenced prior studies.

Analysis of Neonatal Neurobehavior and Developmental Outcomes Among Preterm Infants.

Importance: The ability to identify poor outcomes and treatable risk factors among very preterm infants remains challenging; improving early risk detection and intervention targets to potentially address developmental and behavioral delays is needed. Objective: To determine associations between neonatal neurobehavior using the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS), neonatal medical risk, and 2-year outcomes. Design, Setting, and Participants: This multicenter cohort enrolled infants born at less than 30 weeks' gestation at 9 US university-affiliated NICUs. Enrollment was conducted from April 2014 to June 2016 with 2-year adjusted age follow-up assessment. Data were analyzed from December 2019 to January 2022. Exposures: Adverse medical and psychosocial conditions; neurobehavior. Main Outcomes and Measures: Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, third edition (Bayley-III), cognitive, language, and motor scores of less than 85 and Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) T scores greater than 63. NNNS examinations were completed the week of NICU discharge, and 6 profiles of neurobehavior were identified by latent profile analysis. Generalized estimating equations tested associations among NNNS profiles, neonatal medical risk, and 2-year outcomes while adjusting for site, maternal socioeconomic and demographic factors, maternal psychopathology, and infant sex. Results: A total of 679 enrolled infants had medical and NNNS data; 2-year follow-up data were available for 479 mothers and 556 infants (mean [SD] postmenstrual age at birth, 27.0 [1.9] weeks; 255 [45.9%] female). Overall, 268 mothers (55.9%) were of minority race and ethnicity, and 127 (26.6%) lived in single-parent households. The most common neonatal medical morbidity was BPD (287 [51.7%]). Two NNNS behavior profiles, including 157 infants, were considered high behavioral risk. Infants with at least 2 medical morbidities (n = 123) were considered high medical risk. Infants with high behavioral and high medical risk were 4 times more likely to have Bayley-III motor scores less than 85 compared with those with low behavioral and low medical risk (adjusted relative risk [aRR], 4.1; 95% CI, 2.9-5.1). Infants with high behavioral and high medical risk also had increased risk for cognitive scores less than 85 (aRR, 2.7; 95% CI, 1.8-3.4). Only infants with high behavioral and low medical risk were in the clinical range for CBCL internalizing and total problem scores (internalizing: aRR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.1-4.5; total: aRR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.2-4.4). Conclusions and Relevance: In this study, high-risk neonatal neurobehavioral patterns at NICU discharge were associated with adverse cognitive, motor, and behavioral outcomes at 2 years. Used in conjunction with medical risk, neonatal neurobehavioral assessments could enhance identification of infants at highest risk for delay and offer opportunities to provide early, targeted therapies.

Associations between maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index and neonatal neurobehavior in infants born before 30 weeks gestation.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and neonatal neurobehavior in very premature infants. STUDY DESIGN: Multi-center prospective observational study of 664 very preterm infants with 227 born to obese mothers. The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) assessed neurobehavior at NICU discharge. RESULTS: Elevated BMI combined with infection increased the odds of having the most poorly regulated NNNS profile by 1.9 times per BMI SD. Infants born to mothers with elevated BMI in combination with: infection had poorer self-regulation, chorioamnionitis had increased asymmetrical reflexes, diabetes had poorer attention, and low SES required more handling. CONCLUSION: Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI alone did not affect short-term neonatal neurobehavior in infants born before 30 weeks gestation. Infants born to mothers with elevated pre-pregnancy weight in addition to infections, diabetes, or socioeconomic adversity demonstrated increased risk of having the most poorly regulated NNNS profile and deficits in multiple domains.

New meconium biomarkers of prenatal methamphetamine exposure increase identification of affected neonates.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal methamphetamine (MAMP) exposure is poorly reflected in neonatal meconium. Often, maternal self-reported MAMP use is not corroborated by positive results in amphetamines immunoassays of meconium, and even if initial test results are positive, they frequently are not confirmed for MAMP or amphetamine (AMP) by chromatographic analysis. The presence of the MAMP metabolites p-hydroxymethamphetamine (pOHMAMP), p-hydroxyamphetamine (pOHAMP), and norephedrine (NOREPH) in meconium may improve the identification of MAMP- and AMP-exposed neonates. METHODS: Immunoassay-positive and -negative meconium samples were subjected to liquid chromatography- tandem mass spectrometric reanalysis for these recently identified metabolites. RESULTS: pOHAMP and NOREPH were detected only when MAMP and/or AMP were present and thus do not appear to be promising biomarkers of prenatal MAMP exposure. pOHMAMP, in contrast, identified 6 additional neonates whose mothers reported MAMP exposure, yet had a meconium sample screened as negative; pOHMAMP was more likely to be present if maternal MAMP use continued into the third trimester. Although the pOHMAMP results for meconium samples corroborated the maternal self-reports, the confirmation rate for positive meconium screening results did not improve with the inclusion of these new biomarkers. CONCLUSIONS: pOHMAMP identified additional MAMP- exposed neonates; therefore, MAMP, AMP, and pOHMAMP should be included in meconium chromatographic analyses. Maximizing the identification of MAMP-exposed children requires improvement in immunoassay screening tests to reduce false-negative and false-positive results. Additional research will help clarify which AMP-related compounds, if any, contribute to unconfirmed positive results in screening tests. Furthermore, nonamphetamine compounds endogenous to the complex meconium matrix also may cross-react, making chromatographic confirmation of screening results essential.

Intrauterine growth of infants exposed to prenatal methamphetamine: results from the infant development, environment, and lifestyle study.

Previous studies suggest that prenatal methamphetamine exposure inhibits fetal growth. We examined neonatal growth effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure in a prospective cohort study. After adjusting for covariates, exposed neonates had a higher incidence of being small for gestational age than unexposed neonates.

Patterns of methamphetamine use during pregnancy: results from the Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle (IDEAL) Study.

The objectives of this study are to characterize methamphetamine (MA) usage patterns during pregnancy, examine whether patterns of MA use are associated with sociodemographic characteristics and prenatal care, and test the hypothesis that persistent or increasing MA use during pregnancy is associated with greater use of other illicit drugs. The sample consisted of 191 MA-using mothers who participated in a large-scale multi-site study of prenatal MA exposure. Patterns of substance use were assessed by maternal self-report via the Substance Use Inventory (SUI), which included detailed information about MA use, including frequency, quantity, and maximum use during each trimester of pregnancy. The study demonstrated that on average, the prevalence of MA use decreased over the three trimesters of pregnancy (84.3% vs. 56.0% vs. 42.4%), and decreased frequency was observed among users from the first trimester to the third (3.1 vs. 2.4 vs. 1.5 days/week). Closer examination of the individual patterns revealed that 29.3% of women maintained consistently high frequency, 9.4% increased frequency, 25.7% had a stable low/moderate pattern, and 35.6% decreased their frequency of MA over the course of pregnancy. These four groups did not differ in sociodemographic characteristics; women who decreased their use of MA had significantly more prenatal visits compared to the consistently high-use group, but were the most likely to use alcohol during their pregnancy. In conclusion, this article elucidated the different patterns of MA use in this community sample. Approximately, one third of MA-using mothers could be classified as consistently high users with a profile of use with the greatest risk to themselves and potentially to their infants including high levels of MA use throughout pregnancy and fewer prenatal care visits. Overall, we found that MA use declined across pregnancy; however, a substantial proportion of users had consistently high or increasing MA use, while those who decreased their MA frequency had a higher prevalence of polydrug use. Future research will investigate the association of these patterns with neonatal outcomes.

Sociodemographic and medical influences on neurobehavioral patterns in preterm infants: A multi-center study.

BACKGROUND: Among preterm infants, neurodevelopmental outcomes are influenced by both medical and sociodemographic factors. Less is known about the impact on these factors on neonatal neurobehavioral patterns. OBJECTIVE: To determine associations between demographic, psychosocial and medical risk factors and neonatal neurobehavior. METHODS: Multi-center observational study of infants born <30 weeks enrolled in the Neonatal Neurobehavior and Outcomes in Very Preterm Infants (NOVI) Study between April 2014-May 2016. Maternal medical, demographic, and psychological variables and infant medical variables were prospectively collected. Demographic, substance, psychological and medical risk indices were developed. Neurobehavioral assessment was performed using the NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) at NICU discharge. RESULTS: 709 infants were enrolled in the NOVI study, and for 679 infants with neurobehavioral assessments, 6 NNNS behavioral profiles were calculated using latent profile analysis. Profile 6 infants (n = 47/679, 7%) were atypical, having poor attention, self-regulation and movement quality, hypertonia and increased stress signs. After adjustment for site, profile 6 infants had significantly smaller head circumferences at birth (ß -0.87; -1.59, -0.14), and higher rates of late sepsis (OR 3.38; CI 1.66, 6.92) compared to Profiles 1-5 infants. There were no significant differences in other neonatal morbidities between the two groups. Profile 6 infants had a higher prenatal demographic risk score (1.46 vs 1.07;ß 0.34; CI 0.06, 0.61) compared to Profiles 1-5 infants. CONCLUSION: NNNS behavioral profiles identify an atypical behavioral pattern that is associated with early influences of demographic and medical variables. Such behavioral patterns may be seen as early as NICU discharge.

Identification of prenatal amphetamines exposure by maternal interview and meconium toxicology in the Infant Development, Environment and Lifestyle (IDEAL) study.

The Infant Development Environment and Lifestyle study is investigating the effects of prenatal methamphetamine (MAMP) exposure on infant and child development; potential concurrent exposure to cannabis and tobacco also are evaluated. Maternal self-reported drug use and/or meconium toxicology results defined drug exposure status. It is unclear how the frequency, duration, and magnitude of maternal MAMP exposure affect qualitative and quantitative meconium results. Interviews regarding maternal drug use were collected shortly after birth; meconium specimens were screened for amphetamines, cannabis, and cotinine by immunoassay and confirmed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. The majority of MAMP- and cannabis-exposed infants were identified by maternal interview alone. Meconium tests were more likely to be positive if the mother reported MAMP and cannabis use, particularly in the third trimester. Less than half of immunoassay-positive amphetamines (31.0%) and cannabis (17.9%) meconium results were confirmed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Tobacco exposure was equally detected by immunoassay cotinine screening and maternal report. Meconium concentrations did not correlate with maternal self-report status or trimester of use or frequency or route of MAMP use. Maternal self-report was more sensitive than meconium testing for identifying MAMP and cannabis-exposed neonates; however, the timing of drug exposure may influence meconium toxicology results. Most women stopped MAMP and cannabis use before the third trimester. In the first trimester, meconium has not yet formed, and based on our recent results for opiates and cocaine, drug use in the second trimester appears to be poorly reflected in meconium. Low confirmation rates in meconium reinforce the need for confirmatory testing following positive screening results and additional research to identify alternative biomarkers.

Prenatal methamphetamine use and neonatal neurobehavioral outcome.

BACKGROUND: Methamphetamine (MA) use among pregnant women is an increasing problem in the United States. How prenatal MA exposure affects neonatal neurobehavior is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To examine the neurobehavioral effects of prenatal MA exposure. DESIGN: The Infant Development, Environment and Lifestyle (IDEAL) study screened 13,808 subjects and 1632 were eligible and consented. 166 (n=74 exposed) were enrolled in a longitudinal follow-up. Exposure was determined by meconium assay and self-report with alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco present in both groups. The NICU Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS) was administered within the first 5 days of life. Analyses conducted on NNNS summary scores included exposure group effects, heavy MA use effects, association with frequency of use by trimester, and dose-response relationships with amphetamine metabolites. RESULTS: After adjusting for covariates, exposure to MA was associated with increased physiological stress. Heavy MA use was related to lower arousal, more lethargy, and increased physiological stress. First trimester MA use was related to elevated stress abstinence. Third trimester use was related to poorer quality of movement. Higher level of amphetamine metabolites in meconium was associated with increased CNS stress. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal MA exposure was associated with neurobehavioral patterns of decreased arousal, increased stress, and poor quality of movement. The dose-response relationships may represent neurotoxic effects from MA.

Developmental and behavioral consequences of prenatal methamphetamine exposure: A review of the Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle (IDEAL) study.

This study reviews the findings from the Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle (IDEAL) study, a multisite, longitudinal, prospective study designed to determine maternal outcome and child growth and developmental findings following prenatal methamphetamine exposure from birth up to age 7.5 years. These findings are presented in the context of the home environment and caregiver characteristics to determine how the drug and the environment interact to affect the outcome of these children. No neonatal abstinence syndrome requiring pharmacologic intervention was observed but heavy drug exposure was associated with increased stress responses in the neonatal period. Poorer inhibitory control was also observed in heavy methamphetamine exposed children placing them at high risk for impaired executive function. Independent of methamphetamine exposure, children with more responsive home environments to developmental and emotional needs demonstrated lower risks for internalizing and externalizing behavior.

Examining the relationships between prenatal methamphetamine exposure, early adversity, and child neurobehavioral disinhibition.

Methamphetamine use is a growing problem among pregnant women in the United States. Many negative consequences of methamphetamine use have been documented for the users, but little research has examined the long-term association between prenatal methamphetamine exposure (PME) and childhood outcomes. The current study examined the extent to which PME was predictive of childhood neurobehavioral disinhibition (ND), as well as the extent to which early adversity mediated this relationship. A sample of 320 mother-infant dyads (162 PME) was followed from birth through 6.5 years of age. ND was conceptualized as a two factor model consisting of deficits in (a) behavioral and emotional control, and (b) executive function. PME was associated with behavioral and emotional control at 5 years, which was associated with executive function deficits at 6.5 years. Early adversity (birth through year 3) significantly mediated the relationship between PME and ND. Associations with previous research and implications for prevention are discussed.

Infant temperament and high-risk environment relate to behavior problems and language in toddlers.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the role that easy infant temperament and cumulative environmental risk play in predicting cognitive, language, and behavioral outcomes in 3-year-old children at high social risk. METHODS: Subjects were 412 mother-infant dyads, recruited at birth, participating in a longitudinal study examining the effects of prenatal methamphetamine on child development. This analysis includes a subsample (n = 290) of the study with a completed 3-year visit. Temperament was assessed by the Infant Behavior Questionnaire at 12 months. Factor analysis from well-validated measures generated "easy" and "difficult" temperament profiles and a profile for high-risk environment. Caretaker receptive vocabulary served as a proxy for intelligence quotient. Outcomes at 3 years included motor and mental development, behavior problems, and language. Linear regression and hierarchical linear modeling examined the effects of temperament, high-risk environment, and caregiver receptive language on outcomes adjusting for maternal drug use and demographic and socioeconomic covariates. RESULTS: Internalizing and externalizing behaviors were lower in children with easy temperament and higher with increased environmental risk. Easy temperament attenuated behavioral problems only in the setting of lower environmental risk. Caregiver receptive language was associated with lower internalizing scores. High-risk environment and temperament factors were not related to cognitive or motor outcomes. Prenatal methamphetamine exposure was not associated with 3-year-old outcomes, nor did it alter the protective effects of an easier temperament on child behavior. CONCLUSIONS: CHILDREN growing up in adverse social environments had increased behavioral problems and compromised language development. Conversely, an easy temperament acts as a protective factor for social-emotional development and could be related to resilience.

Motor and cognitive outcomes through three years of age in children exposed to prenatal methamphetamine.

BACKGROUND: Methamphetamine (MA) use among pregnant women is an increasing problem in the United States. The impact of prenatal MA exposure on development in childhood is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of prenatal MA exposure on motor and cognitive development in children at 1, 2, and 3 years of age. DESIGN/METHODS: IDEAL enrolled 412 mother-infant pairs at four sites (Tulsa OK, Des Moines IA, Los Angeles CA, and Honolulu HI). MA subjects (n=204) were identified by self report or GC/MS confirmation of amphetamine and metabolites in infant meconium. Comparison subjects (n=208) were matched (race, birth weight, maternal education, and type of insurance), denied amphetamine use, and had a negative meconium screen. Both groups included prenatal alcohol, tobacco and marijuana use, but excluded use of opiates, lysergic acid diethylamide, phencyclidine or cocaine only. The Peabody Developmental Motor Scales (PDMS-2) were administered to the infants at the 1 and 3 year visits. This analysis includes a subsample (n=350) of the IDEAL study with completed 1 and/or 3 year visits (n=330 and 281, respectively). At each annual visit we also conducted the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID-II) as a general evaluation of mental and motor development. The BSID-II analysis includes a subsample (n=356) of the IDEAL study with completed 1, 2, and/or 3 year visits (n=331, 288, and 278 respectively). GLM analysis conducted on the PDMS-2 and BSID-II examined the effects of MA exposure and heavy MA exposure (≥3 days of use/week), with and without covariates. Longitudinal analyses were used to examine the effects of MA exposure on changes in motor and cognitive performance over time. RESULTS: Heavy MA exposure was associated with significantly lower grasping scores than some and no use at 1 year (P=0.018). In longitudinal analysis, lower grasping scores associated with any MA exposure and heavy exposure persisted to 3 years. There were no effects of MA exposure, including heavy exposure, on the Bayley Mental Development Index (MDI) or Psychomotor Development Index (PDI) at any or across age. CONCLUSIONS: There were no differences in cognition as assessed by the BSID-II between the groups. There was a subtle MA exposure effect on fine motor performance at 1 year with the poorest performance observed in the most heavily exposed children. By 3 years, no differences in fine motor performance were observed. These findings suggest MA exposure has modest motor effects at 1 year that are mostly resolved by 3 years.