Racial discrimination and alcohol problems among African American young adults: Examining the moderating effects of racial socialization by parents and friends.

OBJECTIVE: Racial discrimination is a stressor that may put African Americans at risk for alcohol use and related problems. We examined whether experiences of blatant (racist events) and subtle (racial microaggressions) forms of racial discrimination were associated with alcohol consumption and alcohol problems among African American young adults, and whether childhood/adolescence racial socialization by parents and friends moderated these associations. METHOD: The sample included 383 African American young adults (Mage = 20.65, SD = 2.28; 81% female) who completed an electronic survey in Fall, 2017. Hierarchical linear regression analyses were conducted in Mplus. RESULTS: Experiences of racist events and racial microaggressions were associated with higher levels of alcohol consumption and more alcohol problems. Racial socialization by friends, but not parents, moderated these associations. Specifically, cultural socialization by friends buffered the effect of racist events on alcohol consumption and alcohol problems, whereas promotion of mistrust by friends exacerbated the effect of racial microaggressions on alcohol problems. CONCLUSIONS: Both blatant and subtle forms of racial discrimination were associated with higher risk for alcohol use or problems among African American young adults. Racial socialization by friends while growing up may play an important role in alcohol use outcomes during young adulthood. Findings highlight the importance of considering different forms of racial discrimination and emphasize the unique roles of racial socialization across different social contexts (i.e., parent and peers or friends) in relation to psychosocial outcomes among African American individuals. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Discrimination and Ethnic-Racial Identity: Understanding Direction of Effects Using Within- and Between-Person Analyses.

Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development and ethnic-racial discrimination are two salient experiences among adolescents in the United States. Despite growing awareness of the costs and benefits of these experiences individually, we know little about how they may influence one another. The current study examined competing hypotheses relating discrimination and components of ERI (i.e., exploration, resolution, affirmation) among a sample of Mexican-origin adolescent mothers (N = 181; Mage at Wave 1 = 16.83, SD = 1.01) across six waves of data. Findings revealed that within-person changes in discrimination predicted subsequent ERI resolution and affirmation; however, ERI did not predict subsequent discrimination. Between-person effects of discrimination on affirmation were significant. Our findings underscore the importance of discrimination experiences in shaping Mexican-origin adolescent mothers' normative developmental competencies.

Influence of Parental Alcohol Dependence Symptoms and Parenting on Adolescent Risky Drinking and Conduct Problems: A Family Systems Perspective.

BACKGROUND: Parental alcohol problems are associated with adverse adolescent outcomes such as risky drinking and conduct problems. Important questions remain about the unique roles of fathers' and mothers' alcohol problems and differences and/or similarities in pathways of risk across ethnicity and gender. In this study, we used a family systems approach to consider spillover and crossover effects of fathers' and mothers' alcohol problems (number of alcohol dependence symptoms [ADS]) and parenting behaviors in relation to adolescents' risky drinking and conduct problems. METHODS: The sample included 1,282 adolescents (aged 12 to 17) and their parents from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism. Parents completed the Semi-Structured Assessment for the Genetics of Alcoholism (SSAGA), and adolescents completed an adolescent version of SSAGA. Data were analyzed using multivariate structural equation modeling. RESULTS: Fathers' ADS count was associated with higher adolescent risky drinking and conduct problems indirectly via disruption to fathers' and mothers' positive parenting behaviors, whereas mothers' ADS count was not associated with adolescents' risky drinking and conduct problems directly or indirectly via positive parenting behaviors. No differences in these associations were found across ethnic background and offspring gender. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight the importance of considering the unique roles of fathers' and mothers' ADS in influencing family processes and adolescent outcomes.

Cultural socialization attitudes and behaviors: Examining mothers' centrality, discrimination experiences, and children's effortful control as moderators.

OBJECTIVES: The current study examined whether mothers' cultural socialization attitudes predicted cultural socialization behaviors. In addition, we tested whether this association was moderated by children's effortful control, mothers' ethnic-racial centrality, and mothers' experiences of ethnic discrimination. METHOD: Mexican-origin young mothers (N = 181; Mage = 20.97 years) completed the Cultural Socialization Attitudes Measure, a revised version of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity, the Child Behavior Questionnaire-Very Short Form, and the Perceived Discrimination Scale during an interview and then completed the Cultural Socialization Behaviors Measure a year later. RESULTS: Findings indicated that mothers' cultural socialization attitudes when their children were 4 years of age positively predicted their cultural socialization behaviors 1 year later. Furthermore, experiencing higher ethnic discrimination strengthened the association between mothers' cultural socialization attitudes and behaviors. In addition, mothers' ethnic-racial centrality and children's effortful control were positively associated with mothers' cultural socialization behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: These findings contribute to the literature by underscoring the role of individual characteristics and context in cultural socialization efforts with young children over time. (PsycINFO Database Record

Processes underlying Mexican-origin adolescent mothers' BMI.

OBJECTIVE: To examine potential mediating and moderating factors in the longitudinal association between contextual stressors (economic hardship, ethnic discrimination) and subsequent engagement in risky behaviors and body mass index (BMI) of Mexican-origin adolescent mothers. METHOD: Participants were Mexican-origin adolescent mothers (N = 204) who were recruited from community agencies and high schools in a Southwestern metropolitan area. Contextual stressors and risky behaviors were assessed 3 and 4 years postpartum. Adolescent mothers' BMI was assessed 5-years postpartum. Path analyses assessed moderated mediation with risky behaviors as a mediator of associations between contextual stressors and BMI, and family and friend support as moderators of the mediated pathways. RESULTS: At low levels of family support, economic hardship at 3-years postpartum positively predicted engagement in risky behaviors at 4-years postpartum, which in turn positively predicted BMI at 5-years postpartum. At high levels of family support, all relations were not significant. At low levels of friend support, ethnic discrimination at 3-years postpartum positively predicted engagement in risky behaviors at 4-years postpartum, which in turn positively predicted BMI at 5-years postpartum. At high levels of friend support, all relations were not significant. CONCLUSIONS: Among adolescent mothers who receive low levels of family and friend support, engagement in risky behaviors may function as a mechanism through which contextual stressors are linked to adolescent mothers' BMI. Findings have implications for prevention efforts aimed at attenuating unhealthy weight status among Mexican-origin adolescent mothers by reducing engagement in risky behaviors and bolstering family and friend support. (PsycINFO Database Record

Mothers' characteristics as predictors of adolescents' ethnic-racial identity: An examination of Mexican-origin teen mothers.

OBJECTIVE: The current longitudinal study examined Mexican-origin mothers' cultural characteristics and ethnic socialization efforts as predictors of their adolescent daughters' ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration, resolution, and affirmation. METHOD: Participants were 193 Mexican-origin adolescent mothers (M age = 16.78 years; SD = .98) and their mothers (M age = 41.24 years; SD = 7.11). RESULTS: Findings indicated that mothers' familism values and ERI exploration were positively associated with mother-reported ethnic socialization efforts 1 year later. Furthermore, mothers' ERI affirmation was a significant positive predictor of adolescents' ERI affirmation 2 years later, accounting for adolescents' ERI affirmation 1 year earlier. CONCLUSIONS: Discussion emphasizes the significance of ERI development among adolescent mothers who are negotiating the normative development of ERI and faced with their new role as parents and cultural socializers of their young children. (PsycINFO Database Record

Brief report: Contextual predictors of African American adolescents' ethnic-racial identity affirmation-belonging and resistance to peer pressure.

The current study examined whether contextual factors (i.e., familial cultural socialization, percentage of same-ethnicity friends in high school, and neighborhood ethnic-racial composition) predicted ethnic-racial identity affirmation-belonging and, in turn, resistance to peer pressure to engage in problem behavior. Participants were 250 African American adolescents (M age = 15.57 years; SD = 1.22). Consistent with ecological theory, findings indicated that familial cultural socialization and percentage of same-ethnicity friends predicted greater ethnic-racial identity affirmation-belonging. Furthermore, consistent with notions from social identity theory, youth who reported higher ethnic-racial identity affirmation-belonging also reported greater resistance to peer pressure. Findings highlight the significance of the family and school context, as well as the importance of ethnic-racial identity affirmation-belonging, for African American youths' positive development.

Person-environment fit: everyday conflict and coparenting conflict in Mexican-origin teen mother families.

The current study examined whether a match or mismatch between teen mothers' cultural orientation and the cultural context of the family (i.e., familial ethnic socialization) predicted mother-daughter everyday and coparenting conflict, and in turn, teen mothers' adjustment. Participants were 204 Mexican-origin teen mothers (M age = 16.81 years; SD = 1.00). Consistent with a person-environment fit perspective, findings indicated that a mismatch between teen mothers' cultural orientation (i.e., high mainstream cultural involvement) and the cultural context of the family (i.e., higher levels of familial ethnic socialization) predicted greater mother-daughter everyday conflict and coparenting conflict 1 year later. However, when there was a match (i.e., high levels of familial ethnic socialization for teen mothers with high Mexican orientation), familial ethnic socialization was not associated with mother-daughter conflict. In addition, mother-daughter conflict was positively associated with depressive symptoms and engagement in risky behaviors 1 year later among all teen mothers.

Perceived discrimination and ethnic affirmation: Anglo culture orientation as a moderator among mexican-origin adolescent mothers.

This study examined whether Anglo culture orientation modified the association between adolescents' perceived ethnic discrimination and ethnic identity affirmation over time in a sample of Mexican-origin adolescent mothers (N = 205, Mage  = 16.24 years). Results indicated that perceived ethnic discrimination was significantly associated with decreases in ethnic identity affirmation over time for adolescents reporting high Anglo culture orientation, but no relation existed for adolescents reporting low Anglo culture orientation. Findings suggest that a person-environment mismatch (i.e., between adolescents' perceptions of their connection to Anglo culture and the messages they receive from others regarding that connection in terms of perceived ethnic discrimination) may be detrimental to adolescents' development of positive feelings about their ethnicity.

An examination of biracial college youths' family ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and adjustment: do self-identification labels and university context matter?

This study examined family ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and adjustment among Latino/White and Asian/White biracial college students (n = 507), with special attention to how ethnic self-identification and university ethnic composition informed the ethnic identity process. Findings indicated that family ethnic socialization was positively related to participants' ethnic identity exploration and resolution, but not ethnic identity affirmation. Furthermore, ethnic identity resolution and affirmation were associated with higher self-acceptance and self-esteem, and lower depressive symptoms. Importantly, university ethnic composition moderated the association between ethnic identity resolution and anxiety, such that resolution promoted adjustment in contexts that were relatively more ethnically diverse. University ethnic composition also moderated the association between ethnic identity affirmation and both self-esteem and self-acceptance, such that affirmation was associated with better adjustment but only in schools that were less ethnically diverse.

A Prospective Test of the Family Stress Model with Mexican-origin Adolescent Mothers.

The current six-wave longitudinal study tested the Family Stress Model among 204 Mexican-origin families in which an adolescent pregnancy had occurred. Wave 1 (W1) occurred when adolescents (M age = 16.80 years; SD = 1.00) were pregnant, and the last wave (W6) occurred when children were 5 years of age. In the current study, the Family Stress Model was expanded to include parenting relations among adolescent mothers and fathers, and among adolescent mothers and grandmothers. In support of the Family Stress Model, findings indicated that W1 family income was negatively associated with W6 child internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors via increased W2 economic pressure, increased W3 maternal depressive symptoms, increased W4 mother-grandmother coparenting conflict, and increased W5 maternal parenting hassles. Additionally, W4 mother-father coparenting conflict was positively associated with W6 child internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors via W5 maternal parenting hassles. Findings are discussed with attention to the processes by which family income informs child problem behaviors over time. El presente estudio longitudinal de seis años analizó el Family Stress Model con una muestra de 204 familias de origen mexicano en las cuales había ocurrido un embarazo durante la adolescencia. La primera fase (W1) del estudio se llevó a cabo cuando las adolescentes (M edad= 16.80 años; DE= 1.00) estaban embarazadas, y la última fase (W6) ocurrió cuando sus niños tenían cinco años. En el presente estudio, el Family Stress Model se amplió para incluir variables sobre la co-paternidad entre las madres adolescentes y los padres, y entre las madres adolescentes y las abuelas. Los resultados apoyaron las ideas del Family Stress Model; ingreso familiar en W1 mostró un efecto negativo con problemas de comportamiento y problemas de internalización de los niños en W6 a través del aumento de la presión económica en W2, el aumento de síntomas de depresión maternos en W3, el aumento del conflicto de la co-paternidad entre madre y abuela en W4, y el aumento de problemas de crianza maternas en W5. Adicionalmente, conflicto de la co-paternidad entre la madre y el padre mostró un efecto positivo con problemas de comportamiento y problemas de internalización de los niños en W6 a través de problemas de crianza maternas en W5. Varias ideas se presentan en la Discusión sobre como el ingreso familiar informa el comportamiento problemático en niños a largo plazo.

Evaluating the Psychometric Properties of a Measure of Ethnic Identity Among Black South African Youth.

The authors examined the dimensionality and psychometric properties of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) among Black South African adolescents (ages = 13-14; 52% female) representing several ethnic groups (Ndebele, Pedi, Sotho, Swati, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, Zulu) and evaluated the measure for differential item functioning primarily among four ethnic groups (Sotho, Tswana, Xhosa, and Zulu). Results indicated that a two-dimensional model best represented the data, reflecting ethnic search/clarity and ethnic affirmations. Subsequently, we evaluated the equivalence of the MEIM among the four South African ethnic groups and a sample of African American adolescents (Mage  = 15.57 years; SD = 1.22; 51% female). Further analyses revealed that configural and metric models were excellent across the four South African ethnic groups and the African American group. However, scalar invariance (i.e., intercept) was not found; the item intercepts were different for the South African ethnic groups and African Americans. Findings are discussed with consideration for conducting research on ethnic identity among youth in South Africa.

Mother-Grandmother and Mother-Father Coparenting Across Time among Mexican-Origin Adolescent Mothers and Their Families.

The current study examined mothers' reports of coparenting relationship dynamics (i.e., conflict, communication) within and between mother-father and mother-grandmother subsystems from 10 months post-partum to 5 years post-partum among 178 Mexican-origin teen mothers (M age = 16.78 years; SD = 1.00). Specifically, within subsystems, more frequent mother-father coparenting conflict was associated with less frequent mother-father coparenting communication from 10 months to 5 years post-partum, and more frequent mother-father coparenting communication was associated with less frequent mother-father conflict from 3 to 4 years post-partum. Further, more frequent mother-grandmother coparenting communication was associated with less frequent mother-grandmother conflict from 10 months to 2 years post-partum. Regarding relations across subsystems, more frequent mother-father coparenting conflict was associated with more frequent mother-grandmother conflict from 10 to 24 months post-partum, as well as from 3 to 4 years post-partum. Findings have implications for future interventions focused on coparenting relationships within the context of adolescent parenthood.

Longitudinal relations among Mexican-origin mothers' cultural characteristics, cultural socialization, and 5-year-old children's ethnic-racial identification.

The current longitudinal study examined the intergenerational transmission of ethnic-racial identity/identification and cultural orientation among Mexican-origin adolescent young mothers and their children (N = 161 dyads). Findings indicated that mothers' ethnic-racial identity and their cultural involvement were significantly associated with children's ethnic-racial identification via mothers' cultural socialization; however, associations varied significantly by children's gender and skin tone. For example, mothers' ethnic-racial centrality was positively associated with cultural socialization efforts among mothers with sons (regardless of skin tone); but with daughters, a positive association only emerged among those with lighter skin tones. Associations between cultural socialization and children's ethnic-racial identification also varied by children's gender and skin tone. For example, the relation between mothers' cultural socialization and children's self-labeling as Mexican was positive for girls regardless of skin tone, and for boys with lighter skin tones, but was not significant for boys with darker skin tones. Findings highlight the critical role of children's own characteristics, mothers' ethnic-racial identity and adaptive cultural characteristics, and mothers' cultural socialization efforts in the formation of young Mexican-origin children's ethnic-racial identification. (PsycINFO Database Record

Measuring Cultural Socialization Attitudes and Behaviors of Mexican-Origin Mothers With Young Children: A Longitudinal Investigation.

We describe the development and psychometric testing of the Cultural Socialization Behaviors Measure (CSBM) and the Cultural Socialization Attitudes Measure (CSAM). The CSBM assesses cultural socialization behaviors that parents use with young children, and the CSAM assesses the attitudes that parents have regarding the importance of socializing their young children about their culture. Both measures demonstrated strong reliability, validity, and cross-language equivalence (i.e., Spanish and English) among a sample of 204 Mexican-origin young mothers (Mage = 20.94 years, SD = 1.01) with 4-year-old children. In addition, the measures demonstrated longitudinal equivalence when children were 4 and 5 years of age.

Trajectories of depressive symptoms and self-esteem in Latino youths: examining the role of gender and perceived discrimination.

The current longitudinal study examined changes in Latino adolescents' (N = 323, M age = 15.31 years) self-esteem and depressive symptoms across the high school years. Differences in trajectories were examined by gender and perceived ethnic discrimination. Findings revealed that self-esteem increased across high school for both male adolescents and female adolescents. Depressive symptoms, however, showed differences by gender, with female adolescents reporting a decline in depressive symptoms across high school and male adolescents reporting no change. Perceived ethnic discrimination emerged as an important predictor of male adolescents' self-esteem in early high school and predicted changes in self-esteem growth for male adolescents and female adolescents across the high school years. Perceived ethnic discrimination also emerged as a significant predictor of adolescents' depressive symptoms in early high school but did not relate to changes in symptoms across time. Together, findings suggest that Latino adolescents experience positive changes in psychological adjustment across this developmental time. Experiences of ethnic discrimination, however, have the potential of placing adolescents at risk for maladjustment over time. These findings inform our understanding of Latino youth development and point to the importance of early high school years in youths' psychological functioning.