Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Operative Experience Among General Surgery Residents: A Multi-Institutional Study from the US ROPE Consortium.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationship between race/ethnicity and case volume among graduating surgical residents. BACKGROUND: Racial/ethnic minority individuals face barriers to entry and advancement in surgery; however, no large-scale investigations of the operative experience of racial/ethnic minority residents have been performed. METHODS: A multi-institutional retrospective analysis of the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education case logs of categorical general surgery residents at 20 programs in the US Resident OPerative Experience Consortium database was performed. All residents graduating between 2010 and 2020 were included. The total, surgeon chief, surgeon junior, and teaching assistant case volumes were compared between racial/ethnic groups. RESULTS: The cohort included 1343 residents. There were 211 (15.7%) Asian, 65 (4.8%) Black, 73 (5.4%) Hispanic, 71 (5.3%) "Other" (Native American or Multiple Race), and 923 (68.7%) White residents. On adjusted analysis, Black residents performed 76 fewer total cases (95% CI, -109 to -43, P <0.001) and 69 fewer surgeon junior cases (-98 to -40, P <0.001) than White residents. Comparing adjusted total case volume by graduation year, both Black residents and White residents performed more cases over time; however, there was no difference in the rates of annual increase (10 versus 12 cases per year increase, respectively, P =0.769). Thus, differences in total case volume persisted over the study period. CONCLUSIONS: In this multi-institutional study, Black residents graduated with lower case volume than non-minority residents throughout the previous decade. Reduced operative learning opportunities may negatively impact professional advancement. Systemic interventions are needed to promote equitable operative experience and positive culture change.

Patient-Reported Outcomes Following Severe Abdominal Trauma: A Secondary Analysis of the Damage Control Laparotomy Trial.

INTRODUCTION: Little is known about patient-reported outcomes (PROs) following abdominal trauma. We hypothesized that patients undergoing definitive laparotomy (DEF) would have better PROs compared to those treated with damage control laparotomy (DCL). METHODS: The DCL Trial randomized DEF versus DCL in abdominal trauma. PROs were measured using the European Quality of Life-5 Dimensions-5 Levels (EQ-5D) questionnaire at discharge and six months postdischarge (1 = perfect health, 0 = death, and <0 = worse than death) and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Checklist-Civilian. Unadjusted Bayesian analysis with a neutral prior was used to assess the posterior probability of achieving minimal clinically important difference. RESULTS: Of 39 randomized patients (21 DEF versus 18 DCL), 8 patients died (7 DEF versus 1 DCL). Of those who survived, 28 completed the EQ-5D at discharge (12 DEF versus 16 DCL) and 25 at 6 mo (12 DEF versus 13 DCL). Most patients were male (79%) with a median age of 30 (interquartile range (IQR) 21-42), suffered blunt injury (56%), and were severely injured (median injury severity score 33, IQR 21 - 42). Median EQ-5D value at discharge was 0.20 (IQR 0.06 - 0.52) DEF versus 0.31 (IQR -0.03 - 0.43) DCL, and at six months 0.51 (IQR 0.30 - 0.74) DEF versus 0.50 (IQR 0.28 - 0.84) DCL. The posterior probability of minimal clinically important difference DEF versus DCL at discharge and six months was 16% and 23%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Functional deficits for trauma patients persist beyond the acute setting regardless of laparotomy status. These deficits warrant longitudinal studies to better inform patients on recovery expectations.

Disparities in the Operative Experience Between Female and Male General Surgery Residents: A Multi-institutional Study From the US ROPE Consortium.

OBJECTIVE: To examine differences in resident operative experience between male and female general surgery residents. BACKGROUND: Despite increasing female representation in surgery, sex and gender disparities in residency experience continue to exist. The operative volume of male and female general surgery residents has not been compared on a multi-institutional level. METHODS: Demographic characteristics and case logs were obtained for categorical general surgery graduates between 2010 and 2020 from the US Resident OPerative Experience Consortium database. Univariable, multivariable, and linear regression analyses were performed to compare differences in operative experience between male and female residents. RESULTS: There were 1343 graduates from 20 Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education-accredited programs, and 476 (35%) were females. There were no differences in age, race/ethnicity, or proportion pursuing fellowship between groups. Female graduates were less likely to be high-volume residents (27% vs 36%, P < 0.01). On univariable analysis, female graduates performed fewer total cases than male graduates (1140 vs 1177, P < 0.01), largely due to a diminished surgeon junior experience (829 vs 863, P < 0.01). On adjusted multivariable analysis, female sex was negatively associated with being a high-volume resident (OR = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.56 to 0.98, P = 0.03). Over the 11-year study period, the annual total number of cases increased significantly for both groups, but female graduates (+16 cases/year) outpaced male graduates (+13 cases/year, P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Female general surgery graduates performed significantly fewer cases than male graduates. Reassuringly, this gap in operative experience may be narrowing. Further interventions are warranted to promote equitable training opportunities that support and engage female residents.

Retrospective Analysis of Thoracolumbar Junction Injuries Using the Thoracolumbar Injury Severity and Classification Score, American Spinal Injury Association Class, Injury Severity Score, Age, Sex, and Length of Hospitalization.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective review of patient cohort. OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to assess the validity of the Thoracolumbar Injury Classification and Severity (TLICS) score system by comparing the TLICS system to prior management of thoracolumbar injuries at our institution between January 1, 2006 to March 31, 2011. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: TLICS was introduced in 2005 to classify and assign treatment recommendations for injuries based on 3 axes: mechanism of injury, integrity of the posterior ligamentous complex, and neurological status. METHODS: We retrospectively obtained and analyzed patient data regarding thoracolumbar junction injuries at a major academic medical center servicing level I trauma. In addition, we compared the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) class at time of injury to last follow-up to determine if there was any change in neurological status after intervention. We also compared sex, injury severity score (ISS), length of hospitalization, and age between nonoperatively and operatively treated patients. RESULTS: Included in our study were 201 patients (70% male and 30% female). We found the TLICS system agreed with prior thoracolumbar junction injury management at our institution 98% of the time in nonoperatively treated patients and 78% of the time in operatively treated patients. Age, sex, and ISS were not statistically significant factors in patients who were treated operatively versus nonoperatively, however, there was a trend towards higher ISS in operatively treated patients. Average TLICS score between nonoperative and operative groups was 1.56 and 4.8, respectively, and was a statistically significant difference. There was no statistically significant difference in ASIA class improvement between operative and nonoperative treatment, however, this is likely because of having only 20 patients in this subcohort. Of note, about 50% of the 17 operatively treated patients had improvement in ASIA class. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that TLICS is a valuable tool in a spine surgeon's armamentarium in treating thoracolumbar junction injuries. Some surgeons might be more likely to operate on thoracolumbar junction injuries that should be treated nonoperatively according to the TLICS score. As with all classification schemes, the TLICS system should be used in conjunction with sound clinical judgment.

Impact of Intra-Operative Shock and Resuscitation on Surgical Site Infections After Trauma Laparotomy.

Background: Patients undergoing trauma laparotomy experience high rates of surgical site infection (SSI). Although intra-operative shock is a likely contributor to SSI risk, little is known about the relation between shock, intra-operative restoration of physiologic normalcy, and SSI development. Patients and Methods: A retrospective review of trauma patients who underwent emergent definitive laparotomy was performed. Using shock index and base excess at the beginning and end of laparotomy, patients were classified as normal, persistent shock, resuscitated, or new shock. Univariable and multivariable analyses were performed to identify predictors of organ/space SSI, superficial/deep SSI, and any SSI. Results: Of 1,191 included patients, 600 (50%) were categorized as no shock, 248 (21%) as resuscitated, 109 (9%) as new shock, and 236 (20%) as persistent shock, with incidence of any SSI as 51 (9%), 28 (11%), 26 (24%), and 32 (14%), respectively. These rates were similar in organ/space and superficial/deep SSIs. On multivariable analysis, resuscitated, new shock, and persistent shock were associated with increased odds of organ/space SSI (odds ratio [OR], 2.2; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.3-3.5; p < 0.001) and any SSI (OR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.4-3.2; p < 0.001), but no increased risk of superficial/deep SSI (OR, 1.4; 95% CI, 0.8-2.6; p = 0.331). Conclusions: Although the trajectory of physiologic status influenced SSI, the presence of shock at any time during trauma laparotomy, regardless of restoration of physiologic normalcy, was associated with increased odds of SSI. Further investigation is warranted to determine the relation between peri-operative shock and SSI in trauma patients.

A multi-institutional study from the US ROPE consortium examining factors associated with endocrine surgery exposure for general surgery residents.

BACKGROUND: Prior analyses of general surgery resident case logs have indicated a decline in the number of endocrine procedures performed during residency. This study aimed to identify factors contributing to the endocrine operative experience of general surgery residents and compare those who matched in endocrine surgery fellowship with those who did not. METHODS: We analyzed the case log data of graduates from 18 general surgery residency programs in the US Resident Operative Experience Consortium over an 11-year period. RESULTS: Of the 1,240 residents we included, 17 (1%) matched into endocrine surgery fellowships. Those who matched treated more total endocrine cases, including more thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal cases, than those who did not (81 vs 37, respectively, P < .01). Program-level factors associated with increased endocrine volume included endocrine-specific rotations (+10, confidence interval 8-12, P < .01), endocrine-trained faculty (+8, confidence interval 7-10, P < .01), and program co-location with otolaryngology residency (+5, confidence interval 2 -8, P < .01) or endocrine surgery fellowship (+4, confidence interval 2-6, P < .01). Factors associated with decreased endocrine volume included bottom 50th percentile in National Institute of Health funding (-10, confidence interval -12 to -8, P < .01) and endocrine-focused otolaryngologists (-3, confidence interval -4 to -1, P < .01). CONCLUSION: Several characteristics are associated with a robust endocrine experience and pursuit of an endocrine surgery fellowship. Modifiable factors include optimizing the recruitment of dedicated endocrine surgeons and the inclusion of endocrine surgery rotations in general surgery residency.

Dysphagia is associated with worse clinical outcomes in geriatric trauma patients.

Introduction: Dysphagia is associated with increased morbidity, mortality, and resource utilization in hospitalized patients, but studies on outcomes in geriatric trauma patients with dysphagia are limited. We hypothesized that geriatric trauma patients with dysphagia would have worse clinical outcomes compared with those without dysphagia. Methods: Patients with and without dysphagia were compared in a single-center retrospective cohort study of trauma patients aged ≥65 years admitted in 2019. The primary outcome was mortality. Secondary outcomes included intensive care unit (ICU) length of stay (LOS), hospital LOS, discharge destination, and unplanned ICU admission. Multivariable regression analyses and Bayesian analyses adjusted for age, Injury Severity Score, mechanism of injury, and gender were performed to determine the association between dysphagia and clinical outcomes. Results: Of 1706 geriatric patients, 69 patients (4%) were diagnosed with dysphagia. Patients with dysphagia were older with a higher Injury Severity Score. Increased odds of mortality did not reach statistical significance (OR 1.6, 95% CI 0.6 to 3.4, p=0.30). Dysphagia was associated with increased odds of unplanned ICU admission (OR 4.6, 95% CI 2.0 to 9.6, p≤0.001) and non-home discharge (OR 5.2, 95% CI 2.4 to 13.9, p≤0.001), as well as increased ICU LOS (OR 4.9, 95% CI 3.1 to 8.1, p≤0.001), and hospital LOS (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.7 to 2.6, p≤0.001). On Bayesian analysis, dysphagia was associated with an increased probability of longer hospital and ICU LOS, unplanned ICU admission, and non-home discharge. Conclusions: Clinically apparent dysphagia is associated with poor outcomes, but it remains unclear if dysphagia represents a modifiable risk factor or a marker of underlying frailty, leading to poor outcomes. This study highlights the importance of screening protocols for dysphagia in geriatric trauma patients to possibly mitigate adverse outcomes. Level of evidence: Level III.

A multi-institutional study from the US ROPE Consortium examining factors associated with directly entering practice upon residency graduation.

BACKGROUND: There is concern regarding the competency of today's general surgery graduates as a large proportion defer independent practice in favor of additional fellowship training. Little is known about the graduates who directly enter general surgery practice and if their operative experiences during residency differ from graduates who pursue fellowship. METHODS: Nineteen Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education-accredited general surgery programs from the US Resident OPerative Experience Consortium were included. Demographics, career choice, and case logs from graduates between 2010 to 2020 were analyzed. RESULTS: There were 1,264 general surgery residents who graduated over the 11-year period. A total of 248 (19.6%) went directly into practice and 1,016 (80.4%) pursued fellowship. Graduates directly entering practice were more likely to be a high-volume resident (43.1% vs 30.5%, P < .01) and graduate from a high-volume program (49.2% vs 33.0%, P < .01). Direct-to-practice graduates performed 53 more cases compared with fellowship-bound graduates (1,203 vs 1,150, P < .01). On multivariable analysis, entering directly into practice was positively associated with total surgeon chief case volume (odds ratio = 1.47, 95% confidence interval 1.18-1.84, P < .01) and graduating from a US medical school (odds ratio = 2.54, 95% confidence interval 1.45-4.44, P < .01) while negatively associated with completing a dedicated research experience (odds ratio = 0.31, 95% confidence interval 0.22-0.45, P < .01). CONCLUSION: This is the first multi-institutional study exploring resident operative experience and career choice. These data suggest residents who desire immediate practice can tailor their experience with less research time and increased operative volume. These data may be helpful for programs when designing their experience for residents with different career goals.

Sex-Related Differences of Acute and Chronic Pancreatitis in Adults.

The incidence of acute and chronic pancreatitis is increasing in the United States. Rates of acute pancreatitis (AP) are similar in both sexes, but chronic pancreatitis (CP) is more common in males. When stratified by etiology, women have higher rates of gallstone AP, while men have higher rates of alcohol- and tobacco-related AP and CP, hypercalcemic AP, hypertriglyceridemic AP, malignancy-related AP, and type 1 autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP). No significant sex-related differences have been reported in medication-induced AP or type 2 AIP. Whether post-endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography pancreatitis is sex-associated remains controversial. Animal models have demonstrated sex-related differences in the rates of induction and severity of AP, CP, and AIP. Animal and human studies have suggested that a combination of risk factor profiles, as well as genes, may be responsible for the observed differences. More investigation into the sex-related differences of AP and CP is desired in order to improve clinical management by developing effective prevention strategies, diagnostics, and therapeutics.

Impact of Early Cholecystectomy on the Cost of Treating Mild Gallstone Pancreatitis: Gallstone PANC Trial.

BACKGROUND: The Gallstone Pancreatitis: Admission vs Normal Cholecystectomy (Gallstone PANC) Trial demonstrated that cholecystectomy within 24 hours of admission (early) compared with after clinical resolution (control) for mild gallstone pancreatitis, significantly reduced 30-day length-of-stay (LOS) without increasing major postoperative complications. We assessed whether early cholecystectomy decreased 90-day healthcare use and costs. STUDY DESIGN: A secondary economic evaluation of the Gallstone PANC Trial was performed from the healthcare system perspective. Costs for index admissions and all gallstone pancreatitis-related care 90 days post-discharge were obtained from the hospital accounting system and inflated to 2020 USD. Negative binomial regression models and generalized linear models with log-link and gamma distribution, adjusting for randomization strata, were used. Bayesian analysis with neutral prior was used to estimate the probability of cost reduction with early cholecystectomy. RESULTS: Of 98 randomized patients, 97 were included in the analyses. Baseline characteristics were similar in early (n = 49) and control (n = 48) groups. Early cholecystectomy resulted in a mean absolute difference in LOS of -0.96 days (95% CI, -1.91 to 0.00, p = 0.05). Ninety-day mean total costs were $14,974 (early) vs $16,190 (control) (cost ratio [CR], 0.92; 95% CI, 0.73-1.15, p = 0.47), with a mean absolute difference of $1,216 less (95% CI, -$4,782 to $2,349, p = 0.50) per patient in the early group. On Bayesian analysis, there was an 81% posterior probability that early cholecystectomy reduced 90-day total costs. CONCLUSION: In this single-center trial, early cholecystectomy for mild gallstone pancreatitis reduced 90-day LOS and had an 81% probability of reducing 90-day healthcare system costs.

Damage control laparotomy in trauma: a pilot randomized controlled trial. The DCL trial.

BACKGROUND: Although widely used in treating severe abdominal trauma, damage control laparotomy (DCL) has not been assessed in any randomized controlled trial. We conducted a pilot trial among patients for whom our surgeons had equipoise and hypothesized that definitive laparotomy (DEF) would reduce major abdominal complications (MAC) or death within 30 days compared with DCL. METHODS: Eligible patients undergoing emergency laparotomy were randomized during surgery to DCL or DEF from July 2016 to May 2019. The primary outcome was MAC or death within 30 days. Prespecified frequentist and Bayesian analyses were performed. RESULTS: Of 489 eligible patients, 39 patients were randomized (DCL 18, DEF 21) and included. Groups were similar in demographics and mechanism of injury. The DEF group had a higher Injury Severity Score (DEF median 34 (IQR 20, 43) vs DCL 29 (IQR 22, 41)) and received more prerandomization blood products (DEF median red blood cells 8 units (IQR 6, 11) vs DCL 6 units (IQR 2, 11)). In unadjusted analyses, the DEF group had more MAC or death within 30 days (1.71, 95% CI 0.81 to 3.63, p=0.159) due to more deaths within 30 days (DEF 33% vs DCL 0%, p=0.010). Adjustment for Injury Severity Score and prerandomization blood products reduced the risk ratio for MAC or death within 30 days to 1.54 (95% CI 0.71 to 3.32, p=0.274). The Bayesian probability that DEF increased MAC or death within 30 days was 85% in unadjusted analyses and 66% in adjusted analyses. CONCLUSION: The findings of our single center pilot trial were inconclusive. Outcomes were not worse with DCL and, in fact, may have been better. A randomized clinical trial of DCL is feasible and a larger, multicenter trial is needed to compare DCL and DEF for patients with severe abdominal trauma. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II.

Dual Inhibition of PI3K/Akt and mTOR by the Dietary Antioxidant, Delphinidin, Ameliorates Psoriatic Features In Vitro and in an Imiquimod-Induced Psoriasis-Like Disease in Mice.

AIM: The treatment of psoriasis remains elusive, underscoring the need for identifying novel disease targets and mechanism-based therapeutic approaches. We recently reported that the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway that is frequently deregulated in many malignancies is also clinically relevant for psoriasis. We also provided rationale for developing delphinidin (Del), a dietary antioxidant for the management of psoriasis. This study utilized high-throughput biophysical and biochemical approaches and in vitro and in vivo models to identify molecular targets regulated by Del in psoriasis. RESULTS: A kinome-level screen and Kds analyses against a panel of 102 human kinase targets showed that Del binds to three lipid (PIK3CG, PIK3C2B, and PIK3CA) and six serine/threonine (PIM1, PIM3, mTOR, S6K1, PLK2, and AURKB) kinases, five of which belong to the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. Surface plasmon resonance and in silico molecular modeling corroborated Del's direct interactions with three PI3Ks (α/c2ß/γ), mTOR, and p70S6K. Del treatment of interleukin-22 or TPA-stimulated normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEKs) significantly inhibited proliferation, activation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR components, and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. To establish the in vivo relevance of these findings, an imiquimod (IMQ)-induced Balb/c mouse psoriasis-like skin model was employed. Topical treatment of Del significantly decreased (i) hyperproliferation and epidermal thickness, (ii) skin infiltration by immune cells, (iii) psoriasis-related cytokines/chemokines, (iv) PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway activation, and (v) increased differentiation when compared with controls. Innovation and Conclusion: Our observation that Del inhibits key kinases involved in psoriasis pathogenesis and alleviates IMQ-induced murine psoriasis-like disease suggests a novel PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway modulator that could be developed to treat psoriasis. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 26, 49-69.

Posterior Cervical Foraminotomy: Indications, Technique, and Outcomes.

Cervical radiculopathy presents with upper extremity pain, decreased sensation, and decreased strength caused by irritation of specific nerve root(s). After failure of conservative management, surgical options include anterior cervical decompression and fusion, disk arthroplasty, and posterior cervical foraminotomy. In this review, we discuss indications, techniques, and outcomes of posterior cervical laminoforaminotomy.