An Exploratory Content Analysis of the Use of Health Communication Strategies and Presence of Objectification in Fitness Influencer Social Media Posts.

Health and fitness content intended to inspire people to live healthy lives (e.g. "fitspiration") has been linked to negative body image among girls and young women. Fitness influencers purport wanting to motivate healthy behaviors. This study seeks to examine the presence of strategies known to positively influence health behaviors (e.g. attitudes, self-efficacy) as well as of content known to have a negative influence (e.g. objectification) among fitness influencers. We conducted a content analysis (N = 441) of a random sample of one year of posts from four Instagram fitness influencers popular with girls and young women in the United States. The main analysis consisted of codes related to objectification, health promotion strategies, health-related content, and social engagement (i.e., likes). We found that fitness influencers included content that conveyed constructs previously found to positively influence health behaviors (e.g., attitudes and self-efficacy), but objectification was frequently present, in more than half of the posts. Additionally, we found that the presence of objectification in posts was negatively associated with likes, a form of social endorsement. We suggest health communicators aim to work in tandem with fitness influencers to include content that may motivate positive health behaviors and improve media literacy and that influencers aim to reduce the amount of objectifying content included in their posts. Our findings shed light on content being conveyed and possible insights into the negative effects associated with viewing such content.

Vaccine Videos and Information Sharing: The Effects of Framing, Evidence Type, and Speaker Expertise.

YouTube videos have been used to inform and misinform the public about the safety of vaccines related to health threats such as measles and COVID-19. Understanding how such videos can promote the sharing of accurate vaccine safety information is of the utmost importance if health researchers are to combat the spread of misinformation and encourage widespread uptake of vaccines. Through the lens of prospect theory, this study conducted a 2 (framing: loss v. gain) x 2 (evidence type: episodic v. thematic) x 2 (speaker expertise: expert v. non-expert) between-subject factorial experiment in which a sample of N = 400 US adults over the age of 18 recruited through MTurk were asked their intention to share vaccine safety information with others after watching a manipulated YouTube video. The results showed that loss framing was associated with perceived MMR severity which was, in turn, associated with the likelihood that participants would share MMR vaccine information with others, via any means. However, this process varied depending on the type of evidence delivered, and the expertise of the speaker. Results and limitations are discussed in the context of vaccine communication and social media.

How Media Literacy and Science Media Literacy Predicted the Adoption of Protective Behaviors Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Individuals must navigate complex media environments filled with frequently changing and varyingly credible information to acquire and apply health information during times of uncertainty and danger. A process model tested in two U.S. national surveys in spring (N = 1220) and summer (N = 1264) of 2020 tested how three media literacy constructs (about sources, content, and science information) predicted the adoption of behaviors protective for COVID-19. Results showed that the three media literacy constructs were mediated by knowledge of COVID-19 (wave 1 TE = 0.190; wave 2 TE = 0.190) and expectancies (wave 1 TE = 0.496; wave 2 TE = 0.613). The model was confirmed as largely consistent across the two waves of data collection with independent samples. Results show the importance of expectancies for mediating the effects of media literacy, efficacy, and knowledge on behavior. The study suggests that media literacy and science media literacy skills aid health behavior adoption by contributing to knowledge gain and expectancies.

Integrating Science Media Literacy, Motivational Interviewing, and Neuromarketing Science to Increase Vaccine Education Confidence among U.S. Extension Professionals.

This article presents an Integrative Model of Sustainable Health Decision-Making and a toolkit to equip U.S. Extension professionals with knowledge and skills to engage in adult immunization education. The objective was to reduce mistrust and increase willingness and confidence toward delivering vaccination education. The model was developed through an explanatory parallel mixed methods design. Data collection included a needs assessment survey, interviews, workshops, and Neuromarketing message testing. The resulting toolkit was pilot tested before final delivery. Four key needs were identified: tailoring trainings based on Extension roles, prioritizing preserving community trust and professional credibility, establishing connections with medical experts, and strengthening Science Media Literacy skills to counter misinformation and communicate emerging science. Correlations among constructs supported an integrated model focused on a professional development core of Science Media Literacy, Motivational Interviewing, and Neuromarketing Science that strengthens communication relationships between priority populations and trusted partners. The model and work described in this article can serve as a general framework for engaging key influencers in communities in communication education intended to promote sustainable well-being, such as increasing vaccine uptake.

How Media Literacy, Trust of Experts and Flu Vaccine Behaviors Associated with COVID-19 Vaccine Intentions.

PURPOSE: To assess how previous experiences and new information contributed to COVID-19 vaccine intentions. DESIGN: Online survey (N = 1264) with quality checks. SETTING: Cross-sectional U.S. survey fielded June 22-July 18, 2020. SAMPLE: U.S. residents 18+; quotas reflecting U.S. Census, limited to English speakers participating in internet panels. MEASURES: Media literacy for news content and sources, COVID-19 knowledge; perceived usefulness of health experts; if received flu vaccine in past 12 months; vaccine willingness scale; demographics. ANALYSIS: Structural equation modelling. RESULTS: Perceived usefulness of health experts (b = .422, P < .001) and media literacy (b = .162, P < .003) predicted most variance in vaccine intentions (R-squared=31.5%). A significant interaction (b = .163, P < .001) between knowledge (b = -.132, P = .052) and getting flu shot (b = .185, P < .001) predicted additional 3.5% of the variance in future vaccine intentions. An increase in knowledge of COVID-19 associated with a decrease in vaccine intention among those declining the flu shot. CONCLUSION: The interaction result suggests COVID-19 knowledge had a positive association with vaccine intention for flu shot recipients but a counter-productive association for those declining it. Media literacy and trust in health experts provided strong counterbalancing influences. Survey-based findings are correlational; thus, predictions are based on theory. Future research should study these relationships with panel data or experimental designs.

An Exploratory Study of Adolescents' Social Media Sharing of Marijuana-Related Content.

Adolescents often post content related to risk behaviors online, and social media posting related to substance use has been found to be associated with intentions to use substances. However, there is a dearth of research about what may motivate an adolescent to share marijuana-related content. This study aimed to examine the types of content related to marijuana that adolescents are posting on social media and what may influence such sharing. We conducted an online survey in Washington state (N = 350)-a state in which recreational marijuana use is legal for persons at age 21 years and older-and examined adolescents' social media sharing of marijuana-related content. Thirty-one percent of adolescents in our study reported sharing marijuana-related content on social media, with 24 percent of adolescent participants sharing marijuana-related memes. Peer marijuana use and perceived parents' approval of marijuana were positively associated with the likelihood of posting marijuana-related content on social media. Increased perceived parental monitoring was negatively associated with posting marijuana-related content on social media; however, increased parental media monitoring was not. Our research highlights the factors that may influence adolescents' decisions to share marijuana-related content on social media. Internal factors, such as personal beliefs, were not associated with sharing such content in the final model, whereas external factors, such as perceived peer use and parent approval, were positively associated. Our results have implications for communicators who may want to address adolescents' norm perceptions, and parents who may want to informally monitor their children instead of monitoring their children's social media.