Impacts of Natural Selection on Evolution of Core and Symbiotically Specialized (sym) Genes in the Polytypic Species Neorhizobium galegae.

Nodule bacteria (rhizobia) represent a suitable model to address a range of fundamental genetic problems, including the impacts of natural selection on the evolution of symbiotic microorganisms. Rhizobia possess multipartite genomes in which symbiotically specialized (sym) genes differ from core genes in their natural histories. Diversification of sym genes is responsible for rhizobia microevolution, which depends on host-induced natural selection. By contrast, diversification of core genes is responsible for rhizobia speciation, which occurs under the impacts of still unknown selective factors. In this paper, we demonstrate that in goat's rue rhizobia (Neorhizobium galegae) populations collected at North Caucasus, representing two host-specific biovars orientalis and officianalis (N2-fixing symbionts of Galega orientalis and G. officinalis), the evolutionary mechanisms are different for core and sym genes. In both N. galegae biovars, core genes are more polymorphic than sym genes. In bv. orientalis, the evolution of core genes occurs under the impacts of driving selection (dN/dS > 1), while the evolution of sym genes is close to neutral (dN/dS ≈ 1). In bv. officinalis, the evolution of core genes is neutral, while for sym genes, it is dependent on purifying selection (dN/dS < 1). A marked phylogenetic congruence of core and sym genes revealed using ANI analysis may be due to a low intensity of gene transfer within and between N. galegae biovars. Polymorphism in both gene groups and the impacts of driving selection on core gene evolution are more pronounced in bv. orientalis than in bv. officianalis, reflecting the diversities of their respective host plant species. In bv. orientalis, a highly significant (P0 < 0.001) positive correlation is revealed between the p-distance and dN/dS values for core genes, while in bv. officinalis, this correlation is of low significance (0.05 < P0 < 0.10). For sym genes, the correlation between p-distance and dN/dS values is negative in bv. officinalis but is not revealed in bv. orientalis. These data, along with the functional annotation of core genes implemented using Gene Ontology tools, suggest that the evolution of bv. officinalis is based mostly on adaptation for in planta niches while in bv. orientalis, evolution presumably depends on adaptation for soil niches. New insights into the tradeoff between natural selection and genetic diversity are presented, suggesting that gene nucleotide polymorphism may be extended by driving selection only in ecologically versatile organisms capable of supporting a broad spectrum of gene alleles in their gene pools.

Ecological characteristics and in situ genetic associations for yield-component traits of wild Miscanthus from eastern Russia.

Background and aims Miscanthus is a genus of perennial C4 grasses native to East Asia. It includes the emerging ligno-cellulosic biomass crop M. ×giganteus, a hybrid between M. sinensis and M. sacchariflorus. Biomass yield and cold tolerance are of particular interest in Miscanthus, given that this crop is more temperate adapted than its C4 relatives maize, sorghum and sugarcane. Methods A plant exploration was conducted in eastern Russia, at the northern extreme of the native range for Miscanthus, with collections including 174 clonal germplasm accessions (160 M. sacchariflorus and 14 M. sinensis) from 47 sites. Accessions were genotyped by restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-seq) and plastid microsatellites. Key Results Miscanthus sinensis was found in maritime climates near Vladivostok (43·6°N) and on southern Sakhalin Island (46·6°N). Miscanthus sacchariflorus was found inland at latitudes as high as 49·3°N, where M. sinensis was absent. Most M. sacchariflorus accessions were diploid, but approx. 2 % were tetraploids. Molecular markers revealed little population structure (Jost's D < 0·007 among diploid groups) but high genetic diversity (expected heterozygosity = 0·14) within the collection of Russian M. sacchariflorus. Genome-wide association (GWA) analysis for traits measured at the collection sites revealed three M. sacchariflorus single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) significantly associated with the number of stems per unit area, one with height and one with basal stem diameter; three were near or within previously described sorghum quantitative trait loci for related traits. Conclusions This new Miscanthus germplasm collection from eastern Russia will be useful for breeding Miscanthus and sugarcane cultivars with improved adaptation to cold. Moreover, a strategy is proposed to facilitate the rapid utilization of new germplasm collections: by implementing low-cost SNP genotyping to conduct GWA studies of phenotypic data obtained at collection sites, plant breeders can be provided with actionable information on which accessions have desirable traits and alleles.

An aquaporin protein is associated with drought stress tolerance.

Water channel proteins known as aquaporins (AQPs) regulate the movement of water and other small molecules across plant vacuolar and plasma membranes; they are associated with plant tolerance of biotic and abiotic stresses. In this study, a PIP type AQPs gene, designated as GoPIP1, was cloned from Galega orientalis, a high value leguminous forage crop. The GoPIP1 gene consists of an 870 bp open reading frame encoding a protein of 289 amino acids, and belongs to the PIP1 subgroup of the PIP subfamily. The transcript level of GoPIP1 was higher in the root of G. orientalis than in the leaf and stem. The level of GoPIP1 transcript increased significantly when treated with 200 mM NaCl or 20% polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000. Transient expression of GoPIP1 in onion epidermal cells revealed that the GoPIP1 protein was localized to the plasma membrane. Over-expression of GoPIP1 increased the rosette/root ratio and increased sensitivity to drought in transgenic Arabidopsis plants. However, GoPIP1 over-expression in Arabidopsis had no significant effect under saline condition. The present data provides a gene resource that contributes to furthering our understanding of water channel protein and their application in plant stress tolerance.

Training Population Optimization for Genomic Selection in Miscanthus.

Miscanthus is a perennial grass with potential for lignocellulosic ethanol production. To ensure its utility for this purpose, breeding efforts should focus on increasing genetic diversity of the nothospecies Miscanthus × giganteus (M×g) beyond the single clone used in many programs. Germplasm from the corresponding parental species M. sinensis (Msi) and M. sacchariflorus (Msa) could theoretically be used as training sets for genomic prediction of M×g clones with optimal genomic estimated breeding values for biofuel traits. To this end, we first showed that subpopulation structure makes a substantial contribution to the genomic selection (GS) prediction accuracies within a 538-member diversity panel of predominately Msi individuals and a 598-member diversity panels of Msa individuals. We then assessed the ability of these two diversity panels to train GS models that predict breeding values in an interspecific diploid 216-member M×g F2 panel. Low and negative prediction accuracies were observed when various subsets of the two diversity panels were used to train these GS models. To overcome the drawback of having only one interspecific M×g F2 panel available, we also evaluated prediction accuracies for traits simulated in 50 simulated interspecific M×g F2 panels derived from different sets of Msi and diploid Msa parents. The results revealed that genetic architectures with common causal mutations across Msi and Msa yielded the highest prediction accuracies. Ultimately, these results suggest that the ideal training set should contain the same causal mutations segregating within interspecific M×g populations, and thus efforts should be undertaken to ensure that individuals in the training and validation sets are as closely related as possible.

Ectopic expression of tea MYB genes alter spatial flavonoid accumulation in alfalfa (Medicago sativa).

Flavonoids are one of the largest secondary metabolite groups, which are widely present in plants. Flavonoids include anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols and isoflavones. In particular, proanthocyanidins possess beneficial effects for ruminant animals in preventing lethal pasture bloat. As a major legume forage, alfalfa (Medicago sativa) contains little proanthocyanidins in foliage to combat bloat. In an attempt to improve proanthocyanidin content in alfalfa foliage, we over-expressed two MYB transcription factors (CsMYB5-1 and CsMYB5-2) from tea plant that is rich in proanthocyanidins. We showed that, via targeted metabolite and transcript analyses, the transgenic alfalfa plants accumulated higher levels of flavonoids in stems/leaves than the control, in particular anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins. Over-expression of CsMYB5-1 and CsMYB5-2 induced the expression levels of genes involved in flavonoid pathway, especially anthocyanin/proanthocyanidin-specific pathway genes DFR, ANS and ANR in stems/leaves. Both anthocyanin/proanthocyanidin content and the expression levels of several genes were conversely decreased in flowers of the transgenic lines than in control. Our results indicated that CsMYB5-1 and CsMYB5-2 differently regulate anthocyanins/proanthocyanidins in stems/leaves and flowers. Our study provides a guide for increasing anthocyanin/proanthocyanidin accumulation in foliage of legume forage corps by genetic engineering. These results also suggest that it is feasible to cultivate new varieties for forage production to potentially solve pasture bloat, by introducing transcription factors from typical plants with high proanthocyanidin level.

Functional characterization of a gibberellin receptor and its application in alfalfa biomass improvement.

Bioactive gibberellins (GAs) are essential phytohormones involved in the regulation of many aspects of plant development. GA receptors are crucial in GA signal transduction in plants. The GA receptor GoGID1 promotes plant elongation and improves biomass production when ectopically expressed in tobacco. Here, we discovered that GoGID1 can interact with the DELLA proteins of Arabidopsis in the presence of gibberellic acid. GoGID1 partially or completely functionally rescued the phenotypes of the Arabidopsis double-mutants atgid1a/atgid1c and atgid1a/atgid1b. The overexpression of GoGID1 led to increases in plant height and biomass production in transgenic Arabidopsis plants. The GoGID1 gene enhanced GA sensitivity of the transgenic plants. More importantly, transgenic alfalfa plants overexpressing GoGID1 exhibited increased growth rates, heights and biomass and produced larger leaves when compared with the control plants. Thus, GoGID1 functions as a GA receptor, playing multiple roles in plant growth and development. The GoGID1 gene has the potential to be used in the genetic engineering of forage crops for biomass improvement.

Genetic relationship of Sinorhizobium meliloti and Sinorhizobium medicae strains isolated from Caucasian region.

Sinorhizobium meliloti and Sinorhizobium medicae are two closely related species of the genus Sinorhizobium showing a similar host range, nodulating leguminous species of the genera Medicago, Melilotus and Trigonella, but their phylogenic relationship has not been elucidated yet. In this paper we report the application of three different molecular markers, (i) RFLP of nodD genes, (ii) 16S-23S rDNA intergenic gene spacer fingerprinting and (iii) amplification fragment length polymorphism to S. meliloti and S. medicae strains isolated from the Caucasian area, which is the region of origin of the host plant Medicago. The analysis of data could suggest the origin of S. medicae strains from an ancestral S. meliloti population.

Overexpression of the Galega orientalis gibberellin receptor improves biomass production in transgenic tobacco.

Gibberellins (GAs) are well-known phytohormones that contribute to a wide range of plant growth and development functions including stem elongation and leaf expansion. GA receptors perceive GA and transmit signals to activate GA-regulated reactions. In this study, a GA receptor gene with homology to other leguminous plants was isolated from Galega orientalis and termed GoGID. The 1732-bp full-length GoGID gene included an open reading frame of 1035 bp encoding a peptide of 344 amino acids. Sequence analysis indicated that GoGID shares conserved HGGS motif and active amino acid sites (Ser-Asp-Val/IIe) that are essential for maintaining it GA-binding activity. GoGID mRNA expression was more abundant in leaves than in roots or stems and could be up-regulated by the exogenous hormones. Overexpression of GoGID in transgenic tobacco plants promoted plant elongation and improved biomass production. These results suggested that GoGID functions as a GA receptor to alter GA-mediated signaling. GoGID may have a role in genetic engineering for the improvement of forage crops.