Characterization and pathogenesis of aerosolized eastern equine encephalitis in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus).

BACKGROUND: Licensed antiviral therapeutics and vaccines to protect against eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) in humans currently do not exist. Animal models that faithfully recapitulate the clinical characteristics of human EEEV encephalitic disease, including fever, drowsiness, anorexia, and neurological signs such as seizures, are needed to satisfy requirements of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for clinical product licensing under the Animal Rule. METHODS: In an effort to meet this requirement, we estimated the median lethal dose and described the pathogenesis of aerosolized EEEV in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Five marmosets were exposed to aerosolized EEEV FL93-939 in doses ranging from 2.4 × 101 PFU to 7.95 × 105 PFU. RESULTS: The median lethal dose was estimated to be 2.05 × 102 PFU. Lethality was observed as early as day 4 post-exposure in the highest-dosed marmoset but animals at lower inhaled doses had a protracted disease course where humane study endpoint was not met until as late as day 19 post-exposure. Clinical signs were observed as early as 3 to 4 days post-exposure, including fever, ruffled fur, decreased grooming, and leukocytosis. Clinical signs increased in severity as disease progressed to include decreased body weight, subdued behavior, tremors, and lack of balance. Fever was observed as early as day 2-3 post-exposure in the highest dose groups and hypothermia was observed in several cases as animals became moribund. Infectious virus was found in several key tissues, including brain, liver, kidney, and several lymph nodes. Clinical hematology results included early neutrophilia, lymphopenia, and thrombocytopenia. Key pathological changes included meningoencephalitis and retinitis. Immunohistochemical staining for viral antigen was positive in the brain, retina, and lymph nodes. More intense and widespread IHC labeling occurred with increased aerosol dose. CONCLUSION: We have estimated the medial lethal dose of aerosolized EEEV and described the pathology of clinical disease in the marmoset model. The results demonstrate that the marmoset is an animal model suitable for emulation of human EEEV disease in the development of medical countermeasures.

Syrian Hamsters Model Does Not Reflect Human-like Disease after Aerosol Exposure to Encephalitic Alphaviruses.

Venezuelan (VEE), eastern (EEE), and western (WEE) equine encephalitis viruses are encephalitic New World alphaviruses that cause periodic epizootic and epidemic outbreaks in horses and humans that may cause severe morbidity and mortality. Currently there are no FDA-licensed vaccines or effective antiviral therapies. Each year, there are a limited number of human cases of encephalitic alphaviruses; thus, licensure of a vaccine or therapeutic would require approval under the FDA animal rule. Approval under the FDA animal rule requires the disease observed in the animal model to recapitulate what is observed in humans. Currently, initial testing of vaccines and therapeutics is performed in the mouse model. Unfortunately, alphavirus disease manifestations in a mouse do not faithfully recapitulate human disease; the VEEV mouse model is lethal whereas in humans VEEV is rarely lethal. In an effort to identify a more appropriate small animal model, we evaluated hamsters in an aerosol exposure model of encephalitic alphavirus infection. The pathology, lethality, and viremia observed in the infected hamsters was inconsistent with what is observed in NHP models and humans. These data suggest that hamsters are not an appropriate model for encephalitic alphaviruses to test vaccines or potential antiviral therapies.

Aberrant CD8+T cells drive reproductive dysfunction in female mice with elevated IFN-γ levels.

Introduction: Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) is pivotal in orchestrating immune responses during healthy pregnancy. However, its dysregulation, often due to autoimmunity, infections, or chronic inflammatory conditions, is implicated in adverse reproductive outcomes such as pregnancy failure or infertility. Additionally, the underlying immunological mechanisms remain elusive. Methods: Here, we explore the impact of systemic IFN-γ elevation on cytotoxic T cell responses in female reproduction utilizing a systemic lupus-prone mouse model with impaired IFN-γ degradation. Results: Our findings reveal that heightened IFN-γ levels triggered the infiltration of CD8+T cells in the pituitary gland and female reproductive tract (FRT), resulting in prolactin deficiency and subsequent infertility. Furthermore, we demonstrate that chronic IFN-γ elevation increases effector memory CD8+T cells in the murine ovary and uterus. Discussion: These insights broaden our understanding of the role of elevated IFN-γ in female reproductive dysfunction and suggest CD8+T cells as potential immunotherapeutic targets in female reproductive disorders associated with chronic systemic IFN-γ elevation.

Defining the Cynomolgus Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) Animal Model for Aerosolized Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis: Importance of Challenge Dose and Viral Subtype.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) outbreaks occur sporadically. Additionally, VEEV has a history of development as a biothreat agent. Yet, no FDA-approved vaccine or therapeutic exists for VEEV disease. The sporadic outbreaks present a challenge for testing medical countermeasures (MCMs) in humans; therefore, well-defined animal models are needed for FDA Animal Rule licensure. The cynomolgus macaque (CM) model has been studied extensively at high challenge doses of the VEEV Trinidad donkey strain (>1.0 × 108 plaque-forming units [PFU]), doses that are too high to be a representative human dose. Based on viremia of two subtypes of VEEV, IC, and IAB, we found the CM infectious dose fifty (ID50) to be low, 12 PFU, and 6.7 PFU, respectively. Additionally, we characterized the pattern of three clinical parameters (viremia, temperature, and lymphopenia) across a range of doses to identify a challenge dose producing consistent signs of infection. Based on these studies, we propose a shift to using a lower challenge dose of 1.0 × 103 PFU in the aerosol CM model of VEEV disease. At this dose, NHPs had the highest viremia, demonstrated a fever response, and had a measurable reduction in complete lymphocyte counts-biomarkers that can demonstrate MCM efficacy.

Efficacy of Western, Eastern, and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (WEVEE) Virus-Replicon Particle (VRP) Vaccine against WEEV in a Non-Human Primate Animal Model.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of the route of administration on the immunogenicity and efficacy of a combined western, eastern, and Venezuelan equine encephalitis (WEVEE) virus-like replicon particle (VRP) vaccine in cynomolgus macaques. The vaccine consisted of equal amounts of WEEV, EEEV, and VEEV VRPs. Thirty-three animals were randomly assigned to five treatment or control groups. Animals were vaccinated with two doses of WEVEE VRPs or the control 28 days apart. Blood was collected 28 days following primary vaccination and 21 days following boost vaccination for analysis of the immune response to the WEVEE VRP vaccine. NHPs were challenged by aerosol 28 or 29 days following second vaccination with WEEV CBA87. Vaccination with two doses of WEVEE VRP was immunogenic and resulted in neutralizing antibody responses specific for VEEV, EEEV and WEEV. None of the vaccinated animals met euthanasia criteria following aerosol exposure to WEEV CBA87. However, one NHP control (total of 11 controls) met euthanasia criteria after infection with WEEV CBA87. Statistically significant differences in median fever hours were noted in control NHPs compared to vaccinated NHPs, providing a quantitative measure of infection and efficacy of the vaccine against a WEEV challenge. Alterations in lymphocytes, monocytes, and neutrophils were observed. Lymphopenia was observed in control NHPs.

Myeloid-Derived Suppressive Cell Expansion Promotes Melanoma Growth and Autoimmunity by Inhibiting CD40/IL27 Regulation in Macrophages.

The relationship between cancer and autoimmunity is complex. However, the incidence of solid tumors such as melanoma has increased significantly among patients with previous or newly diagnosed systemic autoimmune disease (AID). At the same time, immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy of cancer induces de novo autoinflammation and exacerbates underlying AID, even without evident antitumor responses. Recently, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) activity was found to drive myeloid-derived suppressor cell (MDSC) formation in patients, a known barrier to healthy immune surveillance and successful cancer immunotherapy. Cross-talk between MDSCs and macrophages generally drives immune suppressive activity in the tumor microenvironment. However, it remains unclear how peripheral pregenerated MDSC under chronic inflammatory conditions modulates global macrophage immune functions and the impact it could have on existing tumors and underlying lupus nephritis. Here we show that pathogenic expansion of SLE-generated MDSCs by melanoma drives global macrophage polarization and simultaneously impacts the severity of lupus nephritis and tumor progression in SLE-prone mice. Molecular and functional data showed that MDSCs interact with autoimmune macrophages and inhibit cell surface expression of CD40 and the production of IL27. Moreover, low CD40/IL27 signaling in tumors correlated with high tumor-associated macrophage infiltration and ICB therapy resistance both in murine and human melanoma exhibiting active IFNγ signatures. These results suggest that preventing global macrophage reprogramming induced by MDSC-mediated inhibition of CD40/IL27 signaling provides a precision melanoma immunotherapy strategy, supporting an original and advantageous approach to treat solid tumors within established autoimmune landscapes. SIGNIFICANCE: Myeloid-derived suppressor cells induce macrophage reprogramming by suppressing CD40/IL27 signaling to drive melanoma progression, simultaneously affecting underlying autoimmune disease and facilitating resistance to immunotherapy within preexisting autoimmune landscapes.

Perforin-deficient CAR T cells recapitulate late-onset inflammatory toxicities observed in patients.

Late-onset inflammatory toxicities resembling hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) or macrophage activation syndrome (MAS) occur after chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR T cell) infusion and represent a therapeutic challenge. Given the established link between perforin deficiency and primary HLH, we investigated the role of perforin in anti-CD19 CAR T cell efficacy and HLH-like toxicities in a syngeneic murine model. Perforin contributed to both CD8+ and CD4+ CAR T cell cytotoxicity but was not required for in vitro or in vivo leukemia clearance. Upon CAR-mediated in vitro activation, perforin-deficient CAR T cells produced higher amounts of proinflammatory cytokines compared with WT CAR T cells. Following in vivo clearance of leukemia, perforin-deficient CAR T cells reexpanded, resulting in splenomegaly with disruption of normal splenic architecture and the presence of hemophagocytes, which are findings reminiscent of HLH. Notably, a substantial fraction of patients who received anti-CD22 CAR T cells also experienced biphasic inflammation, with the second phase occurring after the resolution of cytokine release syndrome, resembling clinical manifestations of HLH. Elevated inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1ß and IL-18 and concurrent late CAR T cell expansion characterized the HLH-like syndromes occurring in the murine model and in humans. Thus, a murine model of perforin-deficient CAR T cells recapitulated late-onset inflammatory toxicities occurring in human CAR T cell recipients, providing therapeutically relevant mechanistic insights.

Autoimmunity and Cancer, the Paradox Comorbidities Challenging Therapy in the Context of Preexisting Autoimmunity.

Today, improvements in diagnostic and therapeutic options allow patients with autoimmune diseases (ADs) to live longer and have more active lives compared with patients receiving conventional anti-inflammatory therapy just two decades ago. Current therapies for ADs aim to inhibit immune cell activation and effector immune pathways, including those activated by cytokines and cytokine receptors. Understandably, such goals become more complicated in patients with long-term established ADs who develop parallel chronic or comorbid conditions, including life-threatening diseases, such as cancer. Compared with the general population, patients with ADs have an increased risk of developing hematological, lymphoproliferative disorders, and solid tumors. However, the aim of current cancer therapies is to activate the immune system to create autoimmune-like conditions and eliminate tumors. As such, their comorbid presentation creates a paradox on how malignancies must be addressed therapeutically in the context of autoimmunity. Because the physiopathology of malignancies is less understood in the context of autoimmunity than it is in the general population, we undertook this review to highlight the peculiarities and mechanisms governing immune cells in established ADs. Moreover, we examined the role of the autoimmune cytokine milieu in the development of immune-related adverse events during the implementation of conventional or immune-based therapy.

Human transcriptome response to immunization with live-attenuated Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus vaccine (TC-83): Analysis of whole blood.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an important human and animal alphavirus pathogen transmitted by mosquitoes. The virus is endemic in Central and South America, but has also caused equine outbreaks in southwestern areas of the United States. In an effort to better understand the molecular mechanisms of the development of immunity to this important pathogen, we performed transcriptional analysis from whole, unfractionated human blood of patients who had been immunized with the live-attenuated vaccine strain of VEEV, TC-83. We compared changes in the transcriptome between naïve individuals who were mock vaccinated with saline to responses of individuals who received TC-83. Significant transcriptional changes were noted at days 2, 7, and 14 following vaccination. The top canonical pathways revealed at early and intermediate time points (days 2 and 7) included the involvement of the classic interferon response, interferon-response factors, activation of pattern recognition receptors, and engagement of the inflammasome. By day 14, the top canonical pathways included oxidative phosphorylation, the protein ubiquitination pathway, natural killer cell signaling, and B-cell development. Biomarkers were identified that differentiate between vaccinees and control subjects, at early, intermediate, and late stages of the development of immunity as well as markers which were common to all 3 stages following vaccination but distinct from the sham-vaccinated control subjects. The study represents a novel examination of molecular processes that lead to the development of immunity against VEEV in humans and which may be of value as diagnostic targets, to enhance modern vaccine design, or molecular correlates of protection.

Interleukin-2 family cytokines stimulate phosphorylation of the Pro-Ser-Pro motif of Stat5 transcription factors in human T cells: resistance to suppression of multiple serine kinase pathways.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat)5a and Stat5b are critical for normal immune function. Progression of T cells through G(1)-S phase of cell cycle requires T cell receptor (TCR)- and/or cytokine-inducible tyrosine phosphorylation of Stat5a/b. Stat5a/b may also, in a cell-dependent manner, be constitutively or cytokine-inducibly phosphorylated on a Pro-Ser-Pro (PSP) motif located within the transcriptional activation domain. Phosphorylation of the PSP motif is needed for maximal transcriptional activation by Stat5, at least in certain promoter contexts. The basal and cytokine-inducible serine phosphorylation state of Stat5a/b has not been determined in T cells. Using primary human T cells and T lymphocytic cell lines coupled with novel phospho-specific antibodies to this conserved phosphoserine motif in Stat5a or Stat5b, we report that: Stat5a and Stat5b were unphosphorylated on the PSP motif under basal conditions and became markedly phosphorylated in response to several T cell growth factor stimuli, including interleukin (IL)-2, -7, -9, and -15 and phorbol ester 12-myristate 13-acetate but not TCR engagement; inducible Stat5a/b serine phosphorylation differed quantitatively and temporally; and Stat5a/b serine phosphorylation was, in contrast to inducible Stat3 serine phosphorylation, insensitive to inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase, and mammalian target of rapamycin or deletion of Raf-A, -B, or -C by antisense oligonucleotides. We conclude that IL-2 family cytokines tightly control Stat5 serine phosphorylation through a kinase distinct from the Stat3 serine kinase.

In vivo HIV-1 Rev multimerization in the nucleolus and cytoplasm identified by fluorescence resonance energy transfer.

Nuclear export of intron-containing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA is mediated by the viral Rev protein. Rev is a nucleocytoplasmic transport protein that directly binds to its cis-acting Rev-responsive element RNA. Rev function depends on its ability to multimerize. The in vivo dynamics and the subcellular dependence of this process are still largely unexplored. To visualize and quantitatively analyze the mechanism of Rev multimeric assembly in live cells, we used high resolution in vivo fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. By using two different dynamic FRET approaches (acceptor photobleaching and donor bleaching time measurements), we observed a strong Rev-Rev interaction in the nucleoli of living cells. Most interestingly, we could also detect Rev multimerization in the cytoplasm; however, FRET efficiency in the cytoplasm was significantly lower than in the nucleolus. By using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching, we investigated the mobility of Rev within the nucleolus. Mathematical modeling of the fluorescence recovery after photobleaching recoveries enabled us to extract relative association and dissociation constants and the diffusion coefficient of Rev in the nucleolus. Our results show that Rev multimerizes in the nucleolus of living cells, suggesting an important role of the nucleolus in nucleocytoplasmic transport.

Selective inhibitor of Janus tyrosine kinase 3, PNU156804, prolongs allograft survival and acts synergistically with cyclosporine but additively with rapamycin.

Janus kinase 3 (Jak3) is a cytoplasmic tyrosine (Tyr) kinase associated with the interleukin-2 (IL-2) receptor common gamma chain (gamma(c)) that is activated by multiple T-cell growth factors (TCGFs) such as IL-2, -4, and -7. Using human T cells, it was found that a recently discovered variant of the undecylprodigiosin family of antibiotics, PNU156804, previously shown to inhibit IL-2-induced cell proliferation, also blocks IL-2-mediated Jak3 auto-tyrosine phosphorylation, activation of Jak3 substrates signal transducers and activators of transcription (Stat) 5a and Stat5b, and extracellular regulated kinase 1 (Erk1) and Erk2 (p44/p42). Although PNU156804 displayed similar efficacy in blocking Jak3-dependent T-cell proliferation by IL-2, -4, -7, or -15, it was more than 2-fold less effective in blocking Jak2-mediated cell growth, its most homologous Jak family member. A 14-day alternate-day oral gavage with 40 to 120 mg/kg PNU156804 extended the survival of heart allografts in a dose-dependent fashion. In vivo, PNU156804 acted synergistically with the signal 1 inhibitor cyclosporine A (CsA) and additively with the signal 3 inhibitor rapamycin to block allograft rejection. It is concluded that inhibition of signal 3 alone by targeting Jak3 in combination with a signal 1 inhibitor provides a unique strategy to achieve potent immunosuppression.