The escalating tuberculosis crisis in central and South American prisons.

In the past decade, tuberculosis incidence has declined in much of the world, but has risen in central and South America. It is not yet clear what is driving this reversal of progress in tuberculosis control. Since 2000, the incarcerated population in central and South America has grown by 206%, the greatest increase in the world. Over the same period, notified tuberculosis cases among the incarcerated population (hereinafter termed persons deprived of their liberty [PDL], following the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights) have risen by 269%. In both central and South America, the rise of disease among PDL more than offsets tuberculosis control gains in the general population. Tuberculosis is increasingly concentrated among PDL; currently, 11% of all notified tuberculosis cases in central and South America occur among PDL who comprise less than 1% of the population. The extraordinarily high risk of acquiring tuberculosis within prisons creates a health and human rights crisis for PDL that also undermines wider tuberculosis control efforts. Controlling tuberculosis in this region will require countries to take urgent measures to prioritise the health of PDL.

Emerging and Reemerging Aedes-Transmitted Arbovirus Infections in the Region of the Americas: Implications for Health Policy.

The increasing geographical spread and disease incidence of arboviral infections are among the greatest public health concerns in the Americas. The region has observed an increasing trend in dengue incidence in the last decades, evolving from low to hyperendemicity. Yellow fever incidence has also intensified in this period, expanding from sylvatic-restricted activity to urban outbreaks. Chikungunya started spreading pandemically in 2005 at an unprecedented pace, reaching the Americas in 2013. The following year, Zika also emerged in the region with an explosive outbreak, carrying devastating congenital abnormalities and neurologic disorders and becoming one of the greatest global health crises in years. The inadequate arbovirus surveillance in the region and the lack of serologic tests to differentiate among viruses poses substantial challenges. The evidence for vector control interventions remains weak. Clinical management remains the mainstay of arboviral disease control. Currently, only yellow fever and dengue vaccines are licensed in the Americas, with several candidate vaccines in clinical trials. The Global Arbovirus Group of Experts provides in this article an overview of progress, challenges, and recommendations on arboviral prevention and control for countries of the Americas.

Trachoma elimination in Latin America: prioritization of municipalities for surveillance activities.

OBJECTIVE: To identify and prioritize municipalities in 22 countries of Latin America for trachoma surveillance activities, to measure the absence or prevalence of trachoma, and to support validation and trachoma elimination efforts in the Region of the Americas. METHODS: A prioritization scale was developed in 2017 to rank each municipality by considering a combination of three characteristics: (a) its trachoma vulnerability index, derived from three socioeconomic factors known to be risks for trachoma-lack of access to improved sanitation, to clean drinking water, and to adequate education, according to housing census data from early 2017; (b) its history of trachoma in countries where the disease was not a known public health problem in 2016; and (c) whether or not it shares a border with a municipality where trachoma was a known public health problem in 2016. Municipalities in 22 countries were classified as either very high, high, medium, or low priority for trachoma surveillance. From the Caribbean, only Trinidad and Tobago met inclusion criteria. RESULTS: The prioritization scale identified 1 053 municipalities in Brazil, Colombia, and Guatemala as very high priority for trachoma surveillance. In Ecuador, El Salvador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela, 183 municipalities were ranked as high priority, and in Argentina, Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and Uruguay, 677 municipalities were designated a medium priority for trachoma surveillance. CONCLUSIONS: This prioritization scale will be useful to countries in Latin America that still need to ascertain their current trachoma situation. The absence or prevalence of trachoma in countries designated as very high and high priority for trachoma surveillance activities must be studied to determine the extent of the disease in Latin America.

Open data and public health.

This article provides an overview of the intersection of open data and public health by first defining open government data, public health data, and other key concepts and relevant terminologies. There are differing perceptions on the urgency and importance of the openness of public health data. It has been established that disease outbreaks such as happened during the Ebola and Zika virus epidemics are indicative of the need for countries to develop a framework that will provide guidance for the management of public health data. Such a framework should ensure that data collected during public health emergencies are accessible to the appropriate authorities and in a form that can help with timely decision-making during such public health crises. In this article, we highlight available open data policies across many countries, including in the Americas. Our analysis shows that there are currently no articulated policy guidelines for the collection and management of public health data across many countries, especially in Latin America. We propose that any national data governance strategy must address potential benefits, possible risks, examples of data that could be shared, and the attributes of such data. Finally, we stress that the key concern in the Americas should be the development of regional frameworks for open data in public health that can be adopted or adapted by each country through appropriate national or subnational policies and strategies.

Este artículo ofrece un panorama de la intersección entre los datos abiertos y la salud pública al definir en primer lugar qué son los datos gubernamentales abiertos, los datos sobre salud pública y otros conceptos fundamentales y términos pertinentes. Hay percepciones dispares sobre la premura y la importancia de la apertura de los datos sobre salud pública. Se ha establecido que los brotes de ciertas enfermedades, como las epidemias por los virus del Ébola y del Zika, demuestran la necesidad de que los países elaboren un marco que oriente la gestión de los datos sobre salud pública. Dicho marco debe garantizar que los datos recopilados durante las emergencias de salud pública sean accesibles para las autoridades competentes y en una forma que contribuya a la toma oportuna de decisiones durante estas crisis de salud pública. En este artículo, destacamos las políticas de datos abiertos existentes en diversos países, incluidos varios de la Región de las Américas. Nuestro análisis muestra que actualmente en muchos países no hay directrices articuladas de políticas públicas para la recopilación y gestión de los datos sobre salud pública, en especial en América Latina. Proponemos que toda estrategia nacional de gobernanza relativa a los datos debe abordar los posibles riesgos y beneficios, ejemplos de los datos que podrían compartirse y los atributos de tales datos. Por último, subrayamos que el interés fundamental en la Región de las Américas debe ser la creación de marcos regionales para datos abiertos sobre salud pública que cada país pueda adoptar o adaptar mediante las políticas y estrategias nacionales o subnacionales apropiadas.

Este artigo expõe um panorama da interseção entre dados abertos e saúde pública, começando por definir o que são dados abertos do governo, dados de saúde pública e outros conceitos fundamentais e terminologias relevantes. Existem distintas percepções quanto à premência e à importância da abertura de dados de saúde pública. Reconhecidamente, os surtos de doenças, como os ocorridos nas epidemias do vírus Ebola e vírus zika, apontam para a necessidade de os países desenvolverem uma estrutura para direcionar o gerenciamento dos dados de saúde pública. Esta estrutura deve servir para garantir que os dados coletados nas emergências de saúde pública estejam acessíveis às autoridades cabíveis em uma forma que possa subsidiar a tomada de decisão oportuna durante tais crises de saúde pública. No artigo, destacam-se as políticas de dados abertos de diversos muitos países, inclusive dos países na Região das Américas. Nossa análise demonstra que vários países, sobretudo na América Latina, não possuem diretrizes claramente definidas de políticas para a coleta e o gerenciamento de dados de saúde pública. Recomendamos que qualquer estratégia nacional de governança de dados nacionais precisa contemplar os possíveis benefícios e riscos, explicitar os dados a ser compartilhados assim como descrever os atributos de tais dados. Por fim, salientamos que a principal preocupação nas Américas deve ser o desenvolvimento de estruturas regionais para dados abertos em saúde pública que possam ser postas em prática ou adaptadas por cada país como parte de estratégias e políticas nacionais ou subnacionais adequadas.

The Virgin Islands National Information Systems for Health: vision, actions, and lessons learned for advancing the national public health agenda.

The British Virgin Islands (BVI) Ministry of Health and Social Development (MOHSD) recently identified the need for an updated strategy to advance the country's vision for Information Systems for Health (IS4H) ("Informed decision-making for better health outcomes"). Since the early 1990s, the MOHSD has recognized the importance of having strong conceptual foundations and mechanisms for its information systems, and the need to strengthen the production and use of good-quality health data to enable fulfillment of the territory's health goals. Therefore, in May 2017, BVI requested technical assistance from the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) to develop a plan/"road map" for strengthening the MOHSD's stewardship capacity for IS4H. This resulted in a bilateral, country-led collaboration between PAHO and the Ministry to carry out two assessments of BVI's National Information Systems for Health (NISH): 1) a rapid assessment to map NISH policy, to develop a short- and medium-term workplan for strengthening and updating it, and 2) a maturity assessment, using PAHO's IS4H Maturity Model tool, to evaluate the implementation of NISH policy thus far and determine next steps. This article describes 1) the steps taken in this bilateral collaboration to update BVI's NISH policy and fine-tune its IS4H vision, including the development of a national plan/road map, and 2) lessons learned.

El Ministerio de Salud y Desarrollo Social de las Islas Vírgenes Británicas identificó recientemente la necesidad de tener una estrategia actualizada para avanzar la visión del país en el ámbito de los sistemas de información para la salud (IS4H) ("Toma de decisiones informadas para obtener mejores resultados de salud"). Desde principios de la década de 1990, el Ministerio ha reconocido la importancia de tener sólidos fundamentos conceptuales y mecanismos para sus sistemas de información, así como la necesidad de fortalecer la producción y el uso de datos de salud de buena calidad para permitir el cumplimiento de los objetivos de salud del territorio. En este contexto, en mayo de 2017 las Islas Vírgenes Británicas solicitaron la asistencia técnica de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS) para desarrollar un plan u "hoja de ruta" para fortalecer su capacidad de administración en el ámbito de los IS4H. Esto resultó en una colaboración bilateral, dirigida por el país, entre la OPS y el Ministerio para llevar a cabo dos evaluaciones de los Sistemas Nacionales de Información para la Salud: 1) una evaluación rápida para mapear la política de estos sistemas, y desarrollar un plan de trabajo a corto y mediano plazo para fortalecerlos y actualizarlos y 2) una evaluación de madurez, utilizando la herramienta Modelo de Madurez de IS4H de la OPS, para evaluar la implementación de la política de Sistemas Nacionales de Información para la Salud hasta el momento y determinar los próximos pasos. Este artículo describe 1) los pasos dados en esta colaboración bilateral para actualizar la política de Sistemas Nacionales de Información para la Salud de las Islas Vírgenes Británicas y ajustar su visión del IS4H, incluido el desarrollo de un plan nacional u hoja de ruta, y 2) las lecciones aprendidas durante este proceso.

O Ministério da Saúde e Desenvolvimento Social das Ilhas Virgens Britânicas identificou recentemente a necessidade de uma estratégia atualizada para avançar a visão do país para os Sistemas de Informação para a Saúde (IS4H) ("Tomada de decisão informada para melhores resultados de saúde"). Desde o início dos anos 1990, o Ministerio reconheceu a importância de ter fortes fundamentos conceituais e mecanismos para seus sistemas de informação, e a necessidade de fortalecer a produção e o uso de dados de boa qualidade em saúde para permitir o cumprimento das metas de saúde do território. Portanto, em maio de 2017, as Ilhas Virgens Britânicas solicitaram assistência técnica da Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde (OPAS) para desenvolver um plano/roteiro para o fortalecimento da capacidade de administração do Ministerio para a IS4H. Isso resultou em uma colaboração bilateral entre a OPAS e o Ministério, liderada pelo país, para conduzir duas avaliações dos Sistemas Nacionais de Informação para a Saúde das Ilhas Virgens Britânicas: 1) uma avaliação rápida para mapear a política do Sistemas Nacionais de Informação para a Saúde, e desenvolver uma estratégia de curto e médio prazo e um plano de trabalho para fortalecê-los e atualizá-los; e 2) uma avaliação de maturidade, utilizando a ferramenta Modelo de Maturidade IS4H da OPAS, para avaliar a implementação da política do Sistemas Nacionais de Informação para a Saúde até o momento e determinar os próximos passos. Este artigo descreve 1) os passos dados nessa colaboração bilateral para atualizar a política de Sistemas Nacionais de Informação para a Saúde das Ilhas Virgens Britânicas e ajustar sua visão de IS4H, incluindo o desenvolvimento de um plano nacional/roteiro, e 2) as lições aprendidas neste processo.

Zika Virus Transmission - Region of the Americas, May 15, 2015-December 15, 2016.

Zika virus, a mosquito-borne flavivirus that can cause rash with fever, emerged in the Region of the Americas on Easter Island, Chile, in 2014 and in northeast Brazil in 2015 (1). In response, in May 2015, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), which serves as the Regional Office of the Americas for the World Health Organization (WHO), issued recommendations to enhance surveillance for Zika virus. Subsequently, Brazilian investigators reported Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS), which had been previously recognized among some patients with Zika virus disease, and identified an association between Zika virus infection during pregnancy and congenital microcephaly (2). On February 1, 2016, WHO declared Zika virus-related microcephaly clusters and other neurologic disorders a Public Health Emergency of International Concern.* In March 2016, PAHO developed case definitions and surveillance guidance for Zika virus disease and associated complications (3). Analysis of reports submitted to PAHO by countries in the region or published in national epidemiologic bulletins revealed that Zika virus transmission had extended to 48 countries and territories in the Region of the Americas by late 2016. Reported Zika virus disease cases peaked at different times in different areas during 2016. Because of ongoing transmission and the risk for recurrence of large outbreaks, response efforts, including surveillance for Zika virus disease and its complications, and vector control and other prevention activities, need to be maintained.

Cystic echinococcosis in South America: a call for action.

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) or hydatidosis, a parasitic zoonosis caused by a cestode of the family Taeniidae, species Echinococcus granulosus, is endemic in Argentina, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, and southern Brazil. This report presents CE figures for these five countries in 2009 - 2014 and proposes indicators to measure national control programs. Nearly 5 000 new CE cases were diagnosed annually in the five countries during the study period. The average case fatality rate was 2.9%, which suggests that CE led to approximately 880 deaths in these countries during the 6-year period. CE cases that required secondary or tertiary health care had average hospital stays of 10.6 days, causing a significant burden to health systems. The proportion of new cases (15%) in children less than 15 years of age suggests ongoing transmission. Despite figures showing that CE is not under control in South America, the long-standing implementation of national and local control programs in three of the five countries has achieved reductions in some of the indicators. The Regional Initiative for the Control of CE, which includes the five countries and provides a framework for networking and collaboration, must intensify its efforts.

International Health Regulations, Ebola, and Emerging Infectious Diseases in Latin America and the Caribbean.

The World Health Organization's determination of the Ebola virus disease outbreak as a public health event of international concern prompted nonaffected countries to implement measures to prevent, detect, and manage the introduction of the virus in their territories. The outbreak provided an opportunity to assess the operational implementation of the International Health Regulations' core capacities and health systems' preparedness to handle a potential or confirmed case of Ebola virus disease. A public health framework implemented in Latin America and Caribbean countries encompassing preparatory self-assessments, in-country visits, and follow-up suggests that the region should increase efforts to consolidate and sustain progress on core capacities and health system preparedness to face public health events with national or international repercussions.

[International Health Regulations, Ebola, and emerging infectious diseases in Latin America and the Caribbean]. / El Reglamento Sanitario Internacional, la enfermedad por el virus del Ébola y las enfermedades infecciosas emergentes en América Latina y el Caribe.

The World Health Organization's determination of the Ebola virus disease outbreak as a public health event of international concern prompted non affected countries to implement measures to prevent, detect, and manage the introduction of the virus in their territories. The outbreak provided an opportunity to assess the operational implementation of the International Health Regulations' core capacities and health systems' preparedness to handle a potential or confirmed case of Ebola virus disease. A public health framework implemented in Latin America and Caribbean countries encompassing preparatory self-assessments, in-country visits, and follow-up suggests that the region should increase efforts to consolidate and sustain progress on core capacities and health system preparedness to face public health events with national or international repercussions.

Social determinants and inequalities in tuberculosis incidence in Latin America and the Caribbean.

OBJECTIVE: To identify key social determinants of tuberculosis (TB) incidence among countries in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), a geographic area regarded as one of the most socioeconomically unequal in the world METHODS: An ecological study was conducted at the country level. Data were obtained from several institutional-based sources. Random-effects regression modeling was used to explore the relationship between several social determinants indicators and TB incidence rates in 20 LAC countries in 1995-2012. Standard gap and gradient metrics of social inequality in TB incidence among countries in 2000, 2005, and 2010 were then calculated. RESULTS: TB incidence rate trends were significantly associated with health expenditure per capita and access to improved sanitation facilities, as well as with life expectancy at birth and TB detection rate, after adjusting for other socioeconomic, demographic, and health services variables. Absolute and relative inequality in TB incidence remained mostly unchanged: countries at the bottom 20% of both health expenditure and sanitation coverage distributions concentrated up to 40% of all TB incident cases, despite a considerable decline in the overall TB incidence mean rate during the period assessed. CONCLUSIONS: Along with the intensity of TB control (reflected by TB detection rate), both access to sanitation (as a proxy of quality of living conditions) and health expenditure per capita (either as an indicator of the level of resources and/or commitment to health care) appear to be key determinants of TB incidence trends in LAC countries. Inequalities in both health expenditure per capita and access to sanitation seem to define profound and persistent inverse gradients in TB incidence among LAC countries.

Global, regional, and national estimates of tuberculosis incidence and case detection among incarcerated individuals from 2000 to 2019: a systematic analysis.

BACKGROUND: People who are incarcerated are at high risk of developing tuberculosis. We aimed to estimate the annual global, regional, and national incidence of tuberculosis among incarcerated populations from 2000 to 2019. METHODS: We collected and aggregated data for tuberculosis incidence and prevalence estimates among incarcerated individuals in published and unpublished literature, annual tuberculosis notifications among incarcerated individuals at the country level, and the annual number of incarcerated individuals at the country level. We developed a joint hierarchical Bayesian meta-regression framework to simultaneously model tuberculosis incidence, notifications, and prevalence from 2000 to 2019. Using this model, we estimated trends in absolute tuberculosis incidence and notifications, the incidence and notification rates, and the case detection ratio by year, country, region, and globally. FINDINGS: In 2019, we estimated a total of 125 105 (95% credible interval [CrI] 93 736-165 318) incident tuberculosis cases among incarcerated individuals globally. The estimated incidence rate per 100 000 person-years overall was 1148 (95% CrI 860-1517) but varied greatly by WHO region, from 793 (95% CrI 430-1342) in the Eastern Mediterranean region to 2242 (1515-3216) in the African region. Global incidence per 100 000 person-years between 2000 and 2012 among incarcerated individuals decreased from 1884 (95% CrI 1394-2616) to 1205 (910-1615); however, from 2013 onwards, tuberculosis incidence per 100 000 person-years was stable, from 1183 (95% CrI 876-1596) in 2013 to 1148 (860-1517) in 2019. In 2019, the global case detection ratio was estimated to be 53% (95% CrI 42-64), the lowest over the study period. INTERPRETATION: Our estimates suggest a high tuberculosis incidence rate among incarcerated individuals globally with large gaps in tuberculosis case detection. Tuberculosis in incarcerated populations must be addressed with interventions specifically tailored to improve diagnoses and prevent transmission as a part of the broader global tuberculosis control effort. FUNDING: National Institutes of Health.