Factors associated with anxiety and depression in facial arthromyalgia.

Facial arthromyalgia (temporomandibular joint pain dysfunction syndrome, TMD) is a chronic pain condition of unknown origin. This paper examines the extent to which the condition is associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression. It also identifies factors which may be predictive of raised levels of these two moods and of the presence of clinical anxiety and clinical depression. Self-report measures of pain beliefs, coping strategies, pain intensity, disability and mood were administered to a sample of 80 facial arthromyalgia patients of differing chronicity. The results showed anxious mood to be associated with several factors including beliefs that pain is itself worsened by negative mood, passive coping in terms of catastrophising about pain, and speech problems. Depressed mood was associated with catastrophising and disability in the form of disturbance in taste and digestion. These factors may be considered as potential targets for therapy, rather than the orthodox objective of pain relief.

Orofacial neuralgia. Diagnosis and treatment guidelines.

Patients with facial pain, without overt dental disease, are often seen in both medical and dental practice. The differential diagnosis includes (a) cluster headache, in which patients have severe unilateral pains lasting 30 to 120 minutes that respond to verapamil, corticosteroids or lithium; (b) migraine, in which attacks are longer and are often accompanied by nausea and visual disturbance, and can be managed using anti-inflammatory analgesics, with or without metoclopramide, or sumatriptan, although frequent attacks are best suppressed by continuous propranolol or pizotifen; (c) trigeminal neuralgia, knifelike unilateral pains usually responsive to carbamazepine; and (d) temporal arteritis, a steadier pain very responsive to corticosteroids. There is no evidence that continuous 'idiopathic facial pain' is a result of malocclusion (i.e. the way in which the teeth fit together), and its aetiology remains obscure, although there is some biochemical evidence linking it to depression. Many patients respond to simple analgesia and firm reassurance from the physician, although antidepressant therapy (e.g. nortriptyline or dothiepin) is often of great value.

Atypical facial pain: a double-blind placebo-controlled crossover pilot study of subcutaneous sumatriptan.

A double-blind placebo-controlled crossover pilot study involving 19 patients was undertaken to evaluate the efficacy of subcutaneous sumatriptan, a selective 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)-like receptor agonist, in the treatment of atypical facial pain (AFP). A reduction in total pain was found 120 min post injection in the sumatriptan group. Most patients, however, described the medication as ineffective overall, despite significant pain score reduction. The temporary improvement of pain scores with the active drug was thought to be too small to be of any clinical benefit, but suggests that vascular or neurogenic mechanisms may be involved in the aetiology of AFP. Sumatriptan is not an appropriate therapeutic option for patients with AFP, but could prove a valuable drug in experimental clinical pharmacology.

Two methods of community detoxification from opiates: an open-label comparison of lofexidine and buprenorphine.

There is currently no consensus on the best approach to the management of opiate detoxification. In the current open-label study, 69 opiate-dependent individuals requesting outpatient detoxification were allocated to two different medication regimes: lofexidine and buprenorphine. Allocation was dependent on the timing of their presentation. Lofexifidine is a structural analogue of clonidine, and used widely in the UK. Buprenorphine is a partial opiate agonist with unusual pharmacological properties. Outcomes were better for the buprenorphine-receiving group (n=38). Clients receiving buprenorphine had a less severe withdrawal syndrome, and were more likely to complete their detoxification. In addition, for the buprenorphine-receiving group it was found that the withdrawal syndrome was least in those prescribed an initial dose of 4 mg. The findings and their implications are discussed. The design of the study precludes definitive conclusions regarding relative efficacy.

The long-term outcome of facial pain treatment.

The long-term outcome of facial pain treatment is largely unknown. This study reports the results of a 4-yr review which indicated that conservative treatments including drug therapy and counselling are effective for 70% of patients. Refractory pain was associated with a long complex history of pain, a preoccupation with physical symptoms and poor psychosocial adjustment.

Psychogenic facial pain: presentation and treatment.

An account is given of a two-centre controlled clinical trial to assess the efficacy of dothiepin (Prothiaden) against placebo and a soft bite-guard in the treatment of psychogenic facial pain. The results confirm the superiority of the dothiepin to placebo in achieving pain relief, but show no benefit from the use of mechanical treatment. Short-term relapse of pain which occurred in the follow-up period was not associated with recurrence of psychiatric symptoms but appeared to be directly related to withdrawal of dothiepin.

Liaison psychiatry and psychology in dentistry.

Dentists are trained to provide treatment for patients with straightforward problems that respond to routine therapy and do not recur. However, patients may present to dentists and complain solely of physical symptoms such as toothache, headache, and facial pain: only after much inappropriate treatment these symptoms are revealed to be due to emotional disturbance. The dentist may spend hours investigating such patients, in some of whom dental pathology may be present, but the symptoms and ensuing disability cannot be satisfactorily explained as a result. There are other patients who are preoccupied by physical symptoms or by their appearance. In others, anxiety may manifest itself as a phobia, or a dysmorphic concern about certain aspects of their appearance. This article reviews the role of liaison psychiatry and psychology in dentistry.

Does short-term group therapy affect unexplained medical symptoms?

This paper describes an intensive time-limited group-therapy program conducted in a busy surgical clinic by two nursing staff with the support of a consultant psychiatrist. Nineteen patients with chronic idiopathic facial pain were recruited to the study and underwent weekly group therapy over 8 weeks. At the end of the study period, results showed decreases in pain, anxiety and depression scores, along with an improvement in the patients coping skills. The findings support the use of group psychological interventions undertaken by appropriately trained nursing staff in reducing symptoms associated with chronic idiopathic facial pain.

GPs' attitudes towards the treatment of drug misusers.

General practitioners (GPs) are encouraged to play a major part in the care and treatment of drug users; however, many regularly encounter physical or verbal abuse and feel frustration, disappointment, and disillusionment when treating such patients. Furthermore, communication difficulties between doctor and patient and the advent of HIV serve to intensify these problems. In order to address these issues, a questionnaire survey was carried out to assess what proportion of GPs are commonly employed in the management of drug misusers, and to examine the attitudes towards, and knowledge of, the management of these patients. The results show that this group of GPs are concerned about drug misuse in their immediate geographic area and believe it should be detected in general practice. Despite this, fewer than half of the GPs felt they had adequate knowledge of the issues surrounding opiate misuse. This finding certainly raises the question of the availability of training and education in the area of drug misuse.

The factor structure of the BDI in facial pain and other chronic pain patients: a comparison of two models using confirmatory factor analysis.

OBJECTIVES: 1) To compare two measurement models of the BDI in chronic pain sufferers to see which provides the better fit; 2) to assess whether model fit differs for a facial pain sample compared to a sample of pain sufferers attending a multidisciplinary pain clinic; and 3) to establish which affective and somatic sub-scales of the BDI could be used in chronic pain research. DESIGN: Two groups of chronic pain sufferers, a facial pain group, and a group attending a multidisciplinary pain clinic completed self-report questionnaires on pain (Multidimensional Pain Inventory), depression (BDI), and measures of anxiety and depression-related pain cognitions (the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Pain Cognitions Questionnaire). The measurement models of the BDI were tested using LISREL structural equation modelling and their construct validity examined using partial correlation analysis. METHOD: A total of 173 people attending a multidisciplinary pain clinic and 157 patients attending a facial pain clinic completed self-report measures of pain and mood prior to their respective clinical consultations. RESULTS: The model offered by Novy et al. (containing one affective factor 'Negative-attitude suicide' and two somatic factors 'Performance difficulty' and 'Physiological manifestations') fitted both pain groups better than the model offered by Williams and Richardson (containing one affective factor 'Self-reproach', one somatic factor 'Somatic disturbance' and one factor with a mixture of both affective and somatic items 'Sadness about health'). However, when the factors were allowed to correlate in the latter model, both models were broadly equivalent. CONCLUSIONS: The two measurement models adequately fitted data in both pain samples when the factors were allowed to intercorrelate in the Williams and Richardson model. Both the affective scales offered by both models could be used in future research, although the somatic factor offered by the Williams and Richardson model offered much higher levels of internal reliability than either of those offered in the Novy et al. model. The findings are discussed in relation to the issue of depression in chronic pain.

Ocular psychiatric disorders in maxillofacial injuries. Two case reports and a review of psychogenic ocular symptoms.

Ocular signs and symptoms associated with facial trauma can be a manifestation of an underlying psychiatric disorder which may exist prior to the traumatic incident, or even develop as a result of the stressful traumatic experience in a psychologically vulnerable individual. Two such cases are presented. A brief review of psychogenic ocular symptoms as well as suggestions for evaluation and treatment are discussed.

A standard way to measure pain and psychological morbidity in dental practice.

Dental surgeons are continually faced with patients in pain. In complicated cases, a measure of pain and its psychological consequences are essential. The McGill Pain Questionnaire measures pain using 78 descriptors and is useful not only in diagnosis but in monitoring treatment outcome. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale is a simple way of assessing anxiety and depression in non psychiatric out-patient clinics. These two scales are compared with other measures that can be used.

Chronic idiopathic orofacial pain: I: What is the evidence base?

Chronic idiopathic orofacial pain is currently a problem for the specialists, but is this type of disorder peculiar to the face, and is there a role for the general dental practitioner? This article reviews the current understanding and management of medically unexplained syndromes and discusses their application in facial pain. A second article will merge this contemporary theory and clinical evidence into a management strategy, and stress the importance of early intervention in the primary care setting.

Temporomandibular joint and orofacial pain: clinical and medicolegal management problems.

Idiopathic pain in the face, temporomandibular joint (TMJ), and teeth is common but varied in its duration and severity. Many cases respond to informed reassurance or simple physical therapy using an occlusal splint. Those that do not should be referred for specialist management by medication, and where necessary, arthroscopy or occasionally arthrotomy. Awareness of the underlying psychogenic factors is important at all levels of management, particularly as some patients will benefit from the support of a liaison psychiatrist. The failure to recognise these factors, together with prolonged unsuccessful physical or surgical therapy can render the pain intractable or incite certain patients to seek relief through litigation.

Chronic idiopathic orofacial pain: II. What can the general dental practitioner do?

Currently, the majority of facial pain patients are referred onto specialists but there are treatment options available to the primary care practitioner and, indeed, good reasons for interception at the acute stage to prevent the development of chronicity. This paper attempts to synthesize contemporary theory and clinical evidence into a management strategy for the general dental practitioner.

Measurement of anxiety in psychotherapy process research.

A new technique designed to measure a patient's anxiety during a psychotherapeutic interview is described. Videotaped recordings were made of interviews between 2 psychotherapists and 6 patients. The anxiety levels experienced by the patients during the interview were measured in three ways. One therapist signalled his recognition of a patient's changing anxiety levels and his interventions to manipulate the patient's anxiety during the interview. Subsequently, the 2 therapists and 6 patients made independent retrospective ratings while viewing a recording of the interview. Significant agreement was found between three sets of ratings and the results suggest that the technique may be of value in psychotherapy process research.

The medical management of facial pain.

The management of patients with facial pain tends to be dictated by the specialist to whom the patient present. This paper reviews the various factors associated with pain development, examines the available treatments and concludes that conservative management including medication and counselling are the most appropriate treatment for patients with chronic facial pain.

Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder in patients with chronic idiopathic facial pain.

34 patients with chronic idiopathic orofacial pain were assessed by a structured clinical interview for diagnosis of mental disorders according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R). Five (15%) had a history of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) which coincided with the pain onset. The majority of these PTSD sufferers also had a personality disorder. The implications of these findings in the diagnosis and management of post-traumatic chronic TMJ pain syndromes is discussed.

Psychological factors influencing post-operative pain and analgesic consumption.

The personality factors, post-operative pain experience and analgesic requirements after minor oral surgery under general anaesthesia of 103 patients are presented. Psychiatric morbidity, neuroticism and anxiety were related to increased pain which tended to persist longer than normal. Trait anxiety also correlated with simple analgesic consumption, and neuroticism was weakly associated with Omnopon requirements. Thus, regular analgesics prescribed for at least 3 days will anticipate the needs of such patients. Despite higher levels of anxiety and neuroticism, women did not complain of more pain or require more analgesia than men in this study. There was also no overall correlation between post-operative pain experience and analgesic requirements. Therefore analgesic tablet consumption cannot be used as a measure of pain control.

Perceptions of outcome following orthognathic surgery.

The definition, evaluation and assurance of quality of health care are becoming increasingly important with health care moving into purchaser/provider mode. This questionnaire based study investigated patient satisfaction and changes in their quality of life following joint orthodontic/surgical treatment for the correction of facial deformity. Questionnaires were distributed to 83 pre-operative and a separate group of 100 postoperative patients with data analysis involving comparison of pre- and postoperative mood states and opinions about various aspects of appearance and personality. The results indicated that the majority of respondents were happy with the outcome of treatment. There was significant improvement in appearance, as well as in self-confidence, overall mood states and the ability to mix socially. The majority of respondents felt that the technical aspects of the operation had been well explained but almost a quarter felt that the effects following surgery were badly explained. Pre-operative counselling, therefore, needs to be improved.