A roadmap towards standardized neuroimaging approaches for human thalamic nuclei.

The thalamus has a key role in mediating cortical-subcortical interactions but is often neglected in neuroimaging studies, which mostly focus on changes in cortical structure and activity. One of the main reasons for the thalamus being overlooked is that the delineation of individual thalamic nuclei via neuroimaging remains controversial. Indeed, neuroimaging atlases vary substantially regarding which thalamic nuclei are included and how their delineations were established. Here, we review current and emerging methods for thalamic nuclei segmentation in neuroimaging data and consider the limitations of existing techniques in terms of their research and clinical applicability. We address these challenges by proposing a roadmap to improve thalamic nuclei segmentation in human neuroimaging and, in turn, harmonize research approaches and advance clinical applications. We believe that a collective effort is required to achieve this. We hope that this will ultimately lead to the thalamic nuclei being regarded as key brain regions in their own right and not (as often currently assumed) as simply a gateway between cortical and subcortical regions.

Hippocampal Interictal Spikes during Sleep Impact Long-Term Memory Consolidation.

OBJECTIVE: Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep is supposed to play a key role in long-term memory consolidation transferring information from hippocampus to neocortex. However, sleep also activates epileptic activities in medial temporal regions. This study investigated whether interictal hippocampal spikes during sleep would impair long-term memory consolidation. METHOD: We prospectively measured visual and verbal memory performance in 20 patients with epilepsy investigated with stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG) at immediate, 30-minute, and 1-week delays, and studied the correlations between interictal hippocampal spike frequency during waking and the first cycle of NREM sleep and memory performance, taking into account the number of seizures occurring during the consolidation period and other possible confounding factors, such as age and epilepsy duration. RESULTS: Retention of verbal memory over 1 week was negatively correlated with hippocampal spike frequency during sleep, whereas no significant correlation was found with hippocampal interictal spikes during waking. No significant result was found for visual memory. Regression tree analysis showed that the number of seizures was the first factor that impaired the verbal memory retention between 30 minutes and 1 week. When the number of seizures was below 5, spike frequency during sleep higher than 13 minutes was associated with impaired memory retention over 1 week. INTERPRETATION: Our results show that activation of interictal spikes in the hippocampus during sleep and seizures specifically impair long-term memory consolidation. We hypothesize that hippocampal interictal spikes during sleep interrupt hippocampal-neocortical transfer of information. ANN NEUROL 2020;87:976-987.

Accelerated long-term forgetting in focal epilepsy: Do interictal spikes during sleep matter?

Accelerated long-term forgetting (ALF) is a particular form of amnesia mostly encountered in focal epilepsy, particularly in temporal lobe epilepsy. This type of memory loss is characterized by an impairment of long-term consolidation of declarative memory, and its mechanisms remain poorly understood. In particular, the respective contribution of lesion, seizures, interictal epileptic discharges, and sleep is still debated. Here, we provide an overview of the relationships intertwining epilepsy, sleep, and memory consolidation and, based on recent findings from intracranial electroencephalographic recordings, we propose a model of ALF pathophysiology that integrates the differential role of interictal spikes during wakefulness and sleep. This model provides a framework to account for the different timescales at which ALF may occur.

Functional brain changes in the elderly for the perception of hand movements: A greater impairment occurs in proprioception than touch.

Unlike age-related brain changes linked to motor activity, neural alterations related to self-motion perception remain unknown. Using fMRI data, we investigated age-related changes in the central processing of somatosensory information by inducing illusions of right-hand rotations with specific proprioceptive and tactile stimulation. Functional connectivity during resting-state (rs-FC) was also compared between younger and older participants. Results showed common sensorimotor activations in younger and older adults during proprioceptive and tactile illusions, but less deactivation in various right frontal regions and the precuneus were found in the elderly. Older participants exhibited a less-lateralized pattern of activity across the primary sensorimotor cortices (SM1) in the proprioceptive condition only. This alteration of the interhemispheric balance correlated with declining individual performance in illusion velocity perception from a proprioceptive, but not a tactile, origin. By combining task-related data, rs-FC and behavioral performance, this study provided consistent results showing that hand movement perception was altered in the elderly, with a more pronounced deterioration of the proprioceptive system, likely due to the breakdown of inhibitory processes with aging. Nevertheless, older people could benefit from an increase in internetwork connectivity to overcome this kinesthetic decline.

Modular slowing of resting-state dynamic functional connectivity as a marker of cognitive dysfunction induced by sleep deprivation.

Dynamic Functional Connectivity (dFC) in the resting state (rs) is considered as a correlate of cognitive processing. Describing dFC as a flow across morphing connectivity configurations, our notion of dFC speed quantifies the rate at which FC networks evolve in time. Here we probe the hypothesis that variations of rs dFC speed and cognitive performance are selectively interrelated within specific functional subnetworks. In particular, we focus on Sleep Deprivation (SD) as a reversible model of cognitive dysfunction. We found that whole-brain level (global) dFC speed significantly slows down after 24h of SD. However, the reduction in global dFC speed does not correlate with variations of cognitive performance in individual tasks, which are subtle and highly heterogeneous. On the contrary, we found strong correlations between performance variations in individual tasks -including Rapid Visual Processing (RVP, assessing sustained visual attention)- and dFC speed quantified at the level of functional sub-networks of interest. Providing a compromise between classic static FC (no time) and global dFC (no space), modular dFC speed analyses allow quantifying a different speed of dFC reconfiguration independently for sub-networks overseeing different tasks. Importantly, we found that RVP performance robustly correlates with the modular dFC speed of a characteristic frontoparietal module.

APP, PSEN1, and PSEN2 mutations in early-onset Alzheimer disease: A genetic screening study of familial and sporadic cases.

BACKGROUND: Amyloid protein precursor (APP), presenilin-1 (PSEN1), and presenilin-2 (PSEN2) mutations cause autosomal dominant forms of early-onset Alzheimer disease (AD-EOAD). Although these genes were identified in the 1990s, variant classification remains a challenge, highlighting the need to colligate mutations from large series. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We report here a novel update (2012-2016) of the genetic screening of the large AD-EOAD series ascertained across 28 French hospitals from 1993 onwards, bringing the total number of families with identified mutations to n = 170. Families were included when at least two first-degree relatives suffered from early-onset Alzheimer disease (EOAD) with an age of onset (AOO) ≤65 y in two generations. Furthermore, we also screened 129 sporadic cases of Alzheimer disease with an AOO below age 51 (44% males, mean AOO = 45 ± 2 y). APP, PSEN1, or PSEN2 mutations were identified in 53 novel AD-EOAD families. Of the 129 sporadic cases screened, 17 carried a PSEN1 mutation and 1 carried an APP duplication (13%). Parental DNA was available for 10 sporadic mutation carriers, allowing us to show that the mutation had occurred de novo in each case. Thirteen mutations (12 in PSEN1 and 1 in PSEN2) identified either in familial or in sporadic cases were previously unreported. Of the 53 mutation carriers with available cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers, 46 (87%) had all three CSF biomarkers-total tau protein (Tau), phospho-tau protein (P-Tau), and amyloid ß (Aß)42-in abnormal ranges. No mutation carrier had the three biomarkers in normal ranges. One limitation of this study is the absence of functional assessment of the possibly and probably pathogenic variants, which should help their classification. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that a nonnegligible fraction of PSEN1 mutations occurs de novo, which is of high importance for genetic counseling, as PSEN1 mutational screening is currently performed in familial cases only. Among the 90 distinct mutations found in the whole sample of families and isolated cases, definite pathogenicity is currently established for only 77%, emphasizing the need to pursue the effort to classify variants.

Consensus classification of posterior cortical atrophy.

INTRODUCTION: A classification framework for posterior cortical atrophy (PCA) is proposed to improve the uniformity of definition of the syndrome in a variety of research settings. METHODS: Consensus statements about PCA were developed through a detailed literature review, the formation of an international multidisciplinary working party which convened on four occasions, and a Web-based quantitative survey regarding symptom frequency and the conceptualization of PCA. RESULTS: A three-level classification framework for PCA is described comprising both syndrome- and disease-level descriptions. Classification level 1 (PCA) defines the core clinical, cognitive, and neuroimaging features and exclusion criteria of the clinico-radiological syndrome. Classification level 2 (PCA-pure, PCA-plus) establishes whether, in addition to the core PCA syndrome, the core features of any other neurodegenerative syndromes are present. Classification level 3 (PCA attributable to AD [PCA-AD], Lewy body disease [PCA-LBD], corticobasal degeneration [PCA-CBD], prion disease [PCA-prion]) provides a more formal determination of the underlying cause of the PCA syndrome, based on available pathophysiological biomarker evidence. The issue of additional syndrome-level descriptors is discussed in relation to the challenges of defining stages of syndrome severity and characterizing phenotypic heterogeneity within the PCA spectrum. DISCUSSION: There was strong agreement regarding the definition of the core clinico-radiological syndrome, meaning that the current consensus statement should be regarded as a refinement, development, and extension of previous single-center PCA criteria rather than any wholesale alteration or redescription of the syndrome. The framework and terminology may facilitate the interpretation of research data across studies, be applicable across a broad range of research scenarios (e.g., behavioral interventions, pharmacological trials), and provide a foundation for future collaborative work.

Rhinal hypometabolism on FDG PET in healthy APO-E4 carriers: impact on memory function and metabolic networks.

PURPOSE: The ε4 allele of the apolipoprotein E (APO-E4) gene, a genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), also modulates brain metabolism and function in healthy subjects. The aim of the present study was to explore cerebral metabolism using FDG PET in healthy APO-E4 carriers by comparing cognitively normal APO-E4 carriers to noncarriers and to assess if patterns of metabolism are correlated with performance on cognitive tasks. Moreover, metabolic connectivity patterns were established in order to assess if the organization of neural networks is influenced by genetic factors. METHODS: Whole-brain PET statistical analysis was performed at voxel-level using SPM8 with a threshold of p < 0.005, corrected for volume, with age, gender and level of education as nuisance variables. Significant hypometabolism between APO-E4 carriers (n = 11) and noncarriers (n = 30) was first determined. Mean metabolic values with clinical/neuropsychological data were extracted at the individual level, and correlations were searched using Spearman's rank test in the whole group. To evaluate metabolic connectivity from metabolic cluster(s) previously identified in the intergroup comparison, voxel-wise interregional correlation analysis (IRCA) was performed between groups of subjects. RESULTS: APO-E4 carriers had reduced metabolism within the left anterior medial temporal lobe (MTL), where neuropathological changes first appear in AD, including the entorhinal and perirhinal cortices. A correlation between metabolism in this area and performance on the DMS48 (delayed matching to sample-48 items) was found, in line with converging evidence involving the perirhinal cortex in object-based memory. Finally, a voxel-wise IRCA revealed stronger metabolic connectivity of the MTL cluster with neocortical frontoparietal regions in carriers than in noncarriers, suggesting compensatory metabolic networks. CONCLUSION: Exploring cerebral metabolism using FDG PET can contribute to a better understanding of the influence of genetic factors on cerebral metabolism at both the local and network levels leading to phenotypical variations of the healthy brain and selective vulnerability.

The use of biomarkers for the etiologic diagnosis of MCI in Europe: an EADC survey.

We investigated the use of Alzheimer's disease (AD) biomarkers in European Alzheimer's Disease Consortium centers and assessed their perceived usefulness for the etiologic diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). We surveyed availability, frequency of use, and confidence in diagnostic usefulness of markers of brain amyloidosis (amyloid positron emission tomography [PET], cerebrospinal fluid [CSF] Aß42) and neurodegeneration (medial temporal atrophy [MTA] on MR, fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography [FDG-PET], CSF tau). The most frequently used biomarker is visually rated MTA (75% of the 37 responders reported using it "always/frequently") followed by CSF markers (22%), FDG-PET (16%), and amyloid-PET (3%). Only 45% of responders perceive MTA as contributing to diagnostic confidence, where the contribution was rated as "moderate". Seventy-nine percent of responders felt "very/extremely" comfortable delivering a diagnosis of MCI due to AD when both amyloid and neuronal injury biomarkers were abnormal (P < .02 versus any individual biomarker). Responders largely agreed that a combination of amyloidosis and neuronal injury biomarkers was a strongly indicative AD signature.

Functional connectivity changes differ in early and late-onset Alzheimer's disease.

At a similar stage, patients with early onset Alzheimer's disease (EOAD) have greater neocortical but less medial temporal lobe dysfunction and atrophy than the late-onset form of the disease (LOAD). Whether the organization of neural networks also differs has never been investigated. This study aims at characterizing basal functional connectivity (FC) patterns of EOAD and LOAD in two groups of 14 patients matched for disease duration and severity, relative to age-matched controls. All subjects underwent an extensive neuropsychological assessment. Magnetic resonance imaging was used to quantify atrophy and resting-state FC focusing on : the default mode network (DMN), found impaired in earlier studies on AD, and the anterior temporal network (ATN) and dorso-lateral prefrontal network (DLPFN), respectively involved in declarative memory and executive functions. Patterns of atrophy and cognitive impairment in EOAD and LOAD were in accordance with previous reports. FC within the DMN was similarly decreased in both EOAD and LOAD relative to controls. However, a double-dissociated pattern of FC changes in ATN and DLPFN was found. EOAD exhibited decreased FC in the DLPFN and increased FC in the ATN relative to controls, while the reverse pattern was found in LOAD. In addition, ATN and DLPFN connectivity correlated respectively with memory and executive performances, suggesting that increased FC is here likely to reflect compensatory mechanisms. Thus, large-scale neural network changes in EOAD and LOAD endorse both common features and differences, probably related to a distinct distribution of pathological changes.

Clinical, neuropsychological, and metabolic characteristics of transient epileptic amnesia syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Transient epileptic amnesia (TEA) is a recently individualized syndrome occurring in adult patients that includes epileptic seizures with amnestic features and interictal memory disturbances. METHODS: We investigated the clinical, neuropsychological, and 18F-FDG positron emission tomography (18F-FDG-PET) features of 30 consecutive cases of TEA in our center. RESULTS: The mean age of onset of amnestic seizures was 59 years. Pure acute amnesia was the only epileptic manifestation in 17% of cases. Interictal electroencephalography (EEG) abnormalities were present in 57% on awake recording and in most patients in whom sleep EEG was performed (96%). Nine of 30 patients showed anterograde memory deficit and six of 30 exhibited mild executive functioning impairment. On the autobiographical memory interview (AMI), patients showed a significant deficit for the recent period of the episodic subscale. Outcome under treatment was favorable in the majority of cases. A significant improvement was noted on recollection of autobiographical memory. 18F-FDG-PET (22 cases) showed positive correlations between left mesial temporal metabolism levels and anterograde and retrograde memory scores. SIGNIFICANCE: TEA is an emerging epileptic syndrome that likely remains misidentified and misdiagnosed. Neurometabolic data support a dysfunction of a hippocampal-neocortical network sustaining episodic memory.

Impaired visual recognition memory predicts Alzheimer's disease in amnestic mild cognitive impairment.

BACKGROUND: In the common form of Alzheimer's disease (AD), neurofibrillary tangles, which are associated with cognitive dysfunction, initially develop in the anterior subhippocampal (perirhinal/entorhinal) cortex before reaching the hippocampus. This area plays a key role in visual recognition memory (VRM). Impaired VRM could therefore be an early marker of AD. METHODS: An extensive neuropsychological assessment including VRM tasks was performed in 26 patients with single-domain amnestic mild cognitive impairment at baseline. We evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of neuropsychological tests using ROC curve analyses in a prospective longitudinal study until conversion to probable AD or with a follow-up of at least 6 years. RESULTS: VRM performance predicted conversion to AD with a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 90.9%. Combining the assessment of VRM with a verbal memory task increased diagnostic accuracy. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive 'biomarkers' evaluating the function of brain areas that are the target of degenerative change should be considered for the early diagnosis of AD.

Cued recall measure predicts the progression of gray matter atrophy in patients with amnesic mild cognitive impairment.

Amnesic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) is a heterogeneous syndrome that could be subdivided into distinct neuropsychological variants. To investigate relationships between the neuropsychological profile of memory impairment at baseline and the neuroimaging pattern of grey matter (GM) loss over 18 months, we performed a prospective volumetric brain study on 31 aMCI patients and 29 matched controls. All subjects were tested at baseline using a standardized neuropsychological battery, which included the Free and Cued Selective Recall Reminding Test (FCSRT) for the assessment of verbal declarative memory. Over 18 months, patients with impaired free recall but normal total recall (high index of cueing) on the FCSRT developed subcortical and frontal GM loss, while patients with impaired free and total recall (low index of cueing) developed GM atrophy within the left anterior and lateral temporal lobe. In summary, cued recall deficits are associated with a progression of atrophy that closely parallels the spatiotemporal distribution of neurofibrillary degeneration in early Alzheimer's disease (AD), indicating possible AD pathological changes.

Phenotype and imaging features associated with APP duplications.

BACKGROUND: APP duplication is a rare genetic cause of Alzheimer disease and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). We aimed to evaluate the phenotypes of APP duplications carriers. METHODS: Clinical, radiological, and neuropathological features of 43 APP duplication carriers from 24 French families were retrospectively analyzed, and MRI features and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers were compared to 40 APP-negative CAA controls. RESULTS: Major neurocognitive disorders were found in 90.2% symptomatic APP duplication carriers, with prominent behavioral impairment in 9.7%. Symptomatic intracerebral hemorrhages were reported in 29.2% and seizures in 51.2%. CSF Aß42 levels were abnormal in 18/19 patients and 14/19 patients fulfilled MRI radiological criteria for CAA, while only 5 displayed no hemorrhagic features. We found no correlation between CAA radiological signs and duplication size. Compared to CAA controls, APP duplication carriers showed less disseminated cortical superficial siderosis (0% vs 37.5%, p = 0.004 adjusted for the delay between symptoms onset and MRI). Deep microbleeds were found in two APP duplication carriers. In addition to neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques, CAA was diffuse and severe with thickening of leptomeningeal vessels in all 9 autopsies. Lewy bodies were found in substantia nigra, locus coeruleus, and cortical structures of 2/9 patients, and one presented vascular amyloid deposits in basal ganglia. DISCUSSION: Phenotypes associated with APP duplications were heterogeneous with different clinical presentations including dementia, hemorrhage, and seizure and different radiological presentations, even within families. No apparent correlation with duplication size was found. Amyloid burden was severe and widely extended to cerebral vessels as suggested by hemorrhagic features on MRI and neuropathological data, making APP duplication an interesting model of CAA.

Long-term consolidation of declarative memory: insight from temporal lobe epilepsy.

Several experiments carried out with a subset of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy have demonstrated normal memory performance at standard delays of recall (i.e. minutes to hours) but impaired performance over longer delays (i.e. days or weeks), suggesting altered long-term consolidation mechanisms. These mechanisms were specifically investigated in a group of five adult-onset pharmaco-sensitive patients with temporal lobe epilepsy, exhibiting severe episodic memory complaints despite normal performance at standardized memory assessment. In a first experiment, the magnitude of autobiographical memory loss was evaluated using retrograde personal memory tasks based on verbal and visual cues. In both conditions, results showed an unusual U-shaped pattern of personal memory impairment, encompassing most of the patients' life, sparing however, periods of the childhood, early adulthood and past several weeks. This profile was suggestive of a long-term consolidation impairment of personal episodes, adequately consolidated over 'short-term' delays but gradually forgotten thereafter. Therefore, in a subsequent experiment, patients were submitted to a protocol specifically devised to investigate short and long-term consolidation of contextually-bound experiences (episodic memory) and context-free information (semantic knowledge and single-items). In the short term (1 h), performance at both contextually-free and contextually-bound memory tasks was intact. After a 6-week delay, however, contextually-bound memory performance was impaired while contextually-free memory performance remained preserved. This effect was independent of task difficulty and the modality of retrieval (recall and recognition). Neuroimaging studies revealed the presence of mild metabolic changes within medial temporal lobe structures. Taken together, these results show the existence of different consolidation systems within declarative memory. They suggest that mild medial temporal lobe dysfunction can impede the building and stabilization of episodic memories but leaves long-term semantic and single-items mnemonic traces intact.

Herpetic encephalitis: which treatment for which body weight?

BACKGROUND: Prognosis of herpetic encephalitis remains severe, with a high proportion of deaths and sequelae. Its treatment is based on acyclovir, but the precise and most effective modalities of this treatment are not established. The objective of this study was to determine them. METHODS: For this, we carried out a descriptive, retrospective, monocentric study, using the current coding database at Marseille University Hospitals. Cohort was intended to be exhaustive for the disease, from January 2000 to June 2019, including patients hospitalized in intensive care and conventional hospitalization sector. Patients (n = 76) included were at least 16 years of age and had a clinical presentation, cerebral Magnetic Resonance Imaging, and/or electroencephalogram abnormalities consistent with herpetic encephalitis confirmed by a positive HSV-PCR in the CSF. Clinical data and treatment, including the doses actually administered to the patient, were compared according to patient's outcome. RESULTS: The mortality rate was 12%, whereas 49% had complete recovery and 39% sequelae impeding independence. Poor outcome was statistically associated with persistence of confusion, aphasia, and impaired consciousness lasting more than 5 days, superinfection, status epilepticus, and length of stay in intensive care unit. A statistical decision tree, constructed using the Classification And Regression Tree model, to prioritize treatment management, showed two main factors that influence the outcome: the patient's weight, and the average daily acyclovir dose actually administered. CONCLUSION: These results suggest to modify acyclovir management in herpetic encephalitis, for low-weight patients (< 79 kg) with a minimum dosage of 2550 mg/day (850 mg/ 8 h), when possible.

Basal functional connectivity within the anterior temporal network is associated with performance on declarative memory tasks.

Spontaneous fluctuations in the blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal, as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at rest, exhibit a temporally coherent activity thought to reflect functionally relevant networks. Antero-mesial temporal structures are the site of early pathological changes in Alzheimer's disease and have been shown to be critical for declarative memory. Our study aimed at exploring the functional impact of basal connectivity of an anterior temporal network (ATN) on declarative memory. A heterogeneous group of subjects with varying performance on tasks assessing memory was therefore selected, including healthy subjects and patients with isolated memory complaint, amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment (aMCI) and mild Alzheimer's disease (AD). Using Independent Component Analysis on resting-state fMRI, we extracted a relevant anterior temporal network (ATN) composed of the perirhinal and entorhinal cortex, the hippocampal head, the amygdala and the lateral temporal cortex extending to the temporal pole. A default mode network and an executive-control network were also selected to serve as control networks. We first compared basal functional connectivity of the ATN between patients and control subjects. Relative to controls, patients exhibited significantly increased functional connectivity in the ATN during rest. Specifically, voxel-based analysis revealed an increase within the inferior and superior temporal gyrus and the uncus. In the patient group, positive correlations between averaged connectivity values of ATN and performance on anterograde and retrograde object-based memory tasks were observed, while no correlation was found with other evaluated cognitive measures. These correlations were specific to the ATN, as no correlation between performance on memory tasks and the other selected networks was found. Taken together, these findings provide evidence that basal connectivity inside the ATN network has a functional role in object-related, context-free memory. They also suggest that increased connectivity at rest within the ATN could reflect compensatory mechanisms that occur in response to early pathological insult.

Visual recognition memory: a double anatomo-functional dissociation.

There is an ongoing debate regarding the respective role of anterior subhippocampal structures and the hippocampus in recognition memory. Here, we report a double anatomo-functional dissociation observed in two brain-damaged patients, FRG and JMG. They both suffered from complete destruction of left MTL structures. In the right hemisphere however, FRG sustained extensive lesions to the hippocampus sparing anterior subhippocampal structures, while JMG suffered from the reversed pattern of lesion, i.e., extensive damage to anterior subhippocampal structures but preserved hippocampus. FRG was severely amnesic and failed all recall tasks involving visual material, but exhibited normal performance at a large battery of visual recognition memory tasks. JMG was not amnesic and showed the opposite pattern of performance. These results strongly support the view that right anterior subhippocampal structures are a critical relay for visual recognition memory in the human.

The Extrastriate Body Area and identity processing: An fMRI guided TMS study.

The extrastriate body area (EBA) is a body-selective focal region located in the lateral occipito-temporal cortex that responds strongly to images of human bodies and body parts in comparison with other classes of stimuli. Whether EBA contributes also to the body recognition of self versus others remains in debate. We investigated whether EBA contributes to self-other distinction and whether there might be a hemispheric-side specificity to that contribution using double-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in right-handed participants. Prior to the TMS experiment, all participants underwent an fMRI localizer task to determine individual EBA location. TMS was then applied over either right EBA, left EBA or vertex, while participants performed an identification task in which images of self or others' right, or left hands were presented. TMS over both EBAs slowed responses, with no identity-specific effect. However, TMS applied over right EBA induced significantly more errors on other's hands than noTMS, TMS over left EBA or over the Vertex, when applied at 100-110 ms after image onset. The last three conditions did not differ, nor was there any difference for self-hands. These findings suggest that EBA participates in self/other discrimination.

Interlimb Transfer of Reach Adaptation Does Not Require an Intact Corpus Callosum: Evidence from Patients with Callosal Lesions and Agenesis.

Generalization of sensorimotor adaptation across limbs, known as interlimb transfer, is a well-demonstrated phenomenon in humans, yet the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear. Theoretical models suggest that interlimb transfer is mediated by interhemispheric transfer of information via the corpus callosum. We thus hypothesized that lesions of the corpus callosum, especially to its midbody connecting motor, supplementary motor, and premotor areas of the two cerebral hemispheres, would impair interlimb transfer of sensorimotor adaptation. To test this hypothesis, we recruited three patients: two rare stroke patients with recent, extensive callosal lesions including the midbody and one patient with complete agenesis. A prismatic adaptation paradigm involving unconstrained arm reaching movements was designed to assess interlimb transfer from the prism-exposed dominant arm (DA) to the unexposed non-dominant arm (NDA) for each participant. Baseline results showed that spatial performance of each patient did not significantly differ from controls, for both limbs. Further, each patient adapted to the prismatic perturbation, with no significant difference in error reduction compared with controls. Crucially, interlimb transfer was found in each patient. The absolute magnitude of each patient's transfer did not significantly differ from controls. These findings show that sensorimotor adaptation can transfer across limbs despite extensive lesions or complete absence of the corpus callosum. Therefore, callosal pathways connecting homologous motor, premotor, and supplementary motor areas are not necessary for interlimb transfer of prismatic reach adaptation. Such interlimb transfer could be mediated by transcallosal splenium pathways (connecting parietal, temporal and visual areas), ipsilateral cortico-spinal pathways or subcortical structures such as the cerebellum.