Validation of the Short Version (TLS-15) of the Triangular Love Scale (TLS-45) across 37 Languages.

Love is a phenomenon that occurs across the world and affects many aspects of human life, including the choice of, and process of bonding with, a romantic partner. Thus, developing a reliable and valid measure of love experiences is crucial. One of the most popular tools to quantify love is Sternberg's 45-item Triangular Love Scale (TLS-45), which measures three love components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. However, our literature review reveals that most studies (64%) use a broad variety of shortened versions of the TLS-45. Here, aiming to achieve scientific consensus and improve the reliability, comparability, and generalizability of results across studies, we developed a short version of the scale-the TLS-15-comprised of 15 items with 5-point, rather than 9-point, response scales. In Study 1 (N = 7,332), we re-analyzed secondary data from a large-scale multinational study that validated the original TLS-45 to establish whether the scale could be truncated. In Study 2 (N = 307), we provided evidence for the three-factor structure of the TLS-15 and its reliability. Study 3 (N = 413) confirmed convergent validity and test-retest stability of the TLS-15. Study 4 (N = 60,311) presented a large-scale validation across 37 linguistic versions of the TLS-15 on a cross-cultural sample spanning every continent of the globe. The overall results provide support for the reliability, validity, and cross-cultural invariance of the TLS-15, which can be used as a measure of love components-either separately or jointly as a three-factor measure.

Exploring Attitudes Toward "Sugar Relationships" Across 87 Countries: A Global Perspective on Exchanges of Resources for Sex and Companionship.

The current study investigates attitudes toward one form of sex for resources: the so-called sugar relationships, which often involve exchanges of resources for sex and/or companionship. The present study examined associations among attitudes toward sugar relationships and relevant variables (e.g., sex, sociosexuality, gender inequality, parasitic exposure) in 69,924 participants across 87 countries. Two self-report measures of Acceptance of Sugar Relationships (ASR) developed for younger companion providers (ASR-YWMS) and older resource providers (ASR-OMWS) were translated into 37 languages. We tested cross-sex and cross-linguistic construct equivalence, cross-cultural invariance in sex differences, and the importance of the hypothetical predictors of ASR. Both measures showed adequate psychometric properties in all languages (except the Persian version of ASR-YWMS). Results partially supported our hypotheses and were consistent with previous theoretical considerations and empirical evidence on human mating. For example, at the individual level, sociosexual orientation, traditional gender roles, and pathogen prevalence were significant predictors of both ASR-YWMS and ASR-OMWS. At the country level, gender inequality and parasite stress positively predicted the ASR-YWMS. However, being a woman negatively predicted the ASR-OMWS, but positively predicted the ASR-YWMS. At country-level, ingroup favoritism and parasite stress positively predicted the ASR-OMWS. Furthermore, significant cross-subregional differences were found in the openness to sugar relationships (both ASR-YWMS and ASR-OMWS scores) across subregions. Finally, significant differences were found between ASR-YWMS and ASR-OMWS when compared in each subregion. The ASR-YWMS was significantly higher than the ASR-OMWS in all subregions, except for Northern Africa and Western Asia.

A Slim Majority: The Influence of Sex Ratio on Women's Body Dissatisfaction and Weight Loss Motivations.

The current investigation examined whether women's perceptions of the sex ratio (ratio of women to men) in the local population influence their body dissatisfaction and weight loss motivations. A higher ratio of women to men in a given population signifies a relative abundance of same-sex mating competitors, intensifying female intrasexual competition. Five studies (N = 1,776) tested the hypotheses that women's perceptions of a female-skewed sex ratio would correspond to increased feelings of intrasexual competitiveness and perceptions of unfavorable mating prospects, which would, in turn, be associated with heightened body dissatisfaction and weight loss motivations. Among university and community women (Studies 1and 2), perceptions of a female-skewed sex ratio corresponded to greater intrasexual competitiveness, increased body dissatisfaction, and increased dieting inclinations. Among single women, assessments of a female-skewed sex ratio corresponded to perceptions of unfavorable mating prospects, increased romantic pressure to alter their appearance, and higher body dissatisfaction (Study 3). Studies 4 and 5 experimentally manipulated perceived sex ratio. Women in the female-skewed condition felt less satisfied with their weights and shapes, but only if they believed the manipulation (Study 4). In Study 5, using a within-subjects design, women who evaluated a male-skewed (vs. female-skewed) dating profile array subsequently desired to lose less weight. Findings suggest women's perceptions of their social environments may contribute to body image and dieting motivations.

Debunking Lesbian Bed Death: Using Coarsened Exact Matching to Compare Sexual Practices and Satisfaction of Lesbian and Heterosexual Women.

The current study examined the prevalence and correlates of over 50 sexual practices in a national survey of heterosexual and lesbian women in relationships. Coarsened exact matching was used to create comparable samples of heterosexual (n = 2510) and lesbian (n = 283) women on six demographic factors, including relationship length. Heterosexual and lesbian women were equally likely to be sexually satisfied (66% heterosexual women vs. 68% lesbian women). Compared to heterosexuals, lesbians were more likely to report having sex 0-1 times per month (11% vs. 23%) and were less likely to report having sex greater than once per month (89% vs. 77%). Among women who had been in relationships for longer than 5 years, heterosexual women were less likely than lesbian women to report having sex 0-1 times per month (15%; 42%). This steeper drop in sexual frequency among lesbian women than heterosexual women has pejoratively been labeled lesbian bed death. Rather than accept the label "lesbian bed death" as characterizing these sexual relationships, we turn our attention to what we call lesbian bed intimacies: the myriad ways that lesbian women incorporate behaviors promoting emotional connection, romance, and mood setting, as well as relying on a wide variety of specific sexual acts (e.g., use of sex toys) and sexual communication. Compared to heterosexual women, lesbian women were more likely to usually to always receive oral sex during sex in the past month (28%; 47%) and to use sex toys in the past year (40%; 62%). In their last sexual encounter, lesbian women were more likely to say "I love you" (67%; 80%), have sex longer than 30 min (48%; 72%), and engage in gentle kissing (80%; 92%). These intimacies likely help explain why sexual satisfaction was similar in these groups despite notable differences in sexual frequency.

Comparing internalization of appearance ideals and appearance-related pressures among women from the United States, Italy, England, and Australia.

Researchers have observed variation in levels of body image disturbance and eating pathology among women from different Western countries. Examination of cross-cultural differences in the established risk factors (i.e., thin-ideal internalization, muscular-ideal internalization, and appearance pressures from family, peers, and media) for negative outcomes may help to elucidate the prominence of specific risk factors within a given Western society and guide associated interventions. Women from the United States (US), Italy, England, and Australia completed the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4 (SATAQ-4). Analysis of covariance controlling for age and BMI indicated significant cross-country differences for all SATAQ-4 subscales. Results typically indicated higher levels of appearance-ideal internalization and appearance pressures in the US and lower levels in Italy; however, associated effect sizes were generally small. A medium effect of country was observed for peer-appearance pressures, which were highest in the US compared with all other countries. Repeated-measures analysis of variance and paired samples t tests conducted within each country identified thin-ideal internalization and media appearance pressures as the predominant risk factors for all four countries. Overall, findings suggest more cross-country similarities than differences, and highlight the importance of delivering interventions to address thin-ideal internalization and media appearance pressures among women from Western backgrounds.Level of evidence Descriptive study, Level V.

Identifying a male clinical cutoff on the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-Q).

OBJECTIVE: Evidence suggests that eating disorders (EDs) may be under-detected in males. Commonly used measures of EDs such as the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-Q) were initially developed within female samples, raising concern regarding the extent to which these instruments may be appropriate for detecting EDs in males. The current study used receiver operating characteristic curve analysis to (a) examine the accuracy of the EDE-Q global score in correctly classifying males with and without clinically significant ED pathology, and (b) establish the optimal EDE-Q global clinical cutoff for males. METHOD: Participants were a clinical sample of 245 male ED patients and a control sample of 205 male undergraduates. RESULTS: Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire global scores demonstrated moderate-high accuracy in predicting ED status (area under the curve = 0.85, 95% CI: 0.82-0.89). The optimal cutoff of 1.68 yielded a sensitivity of 0.77 and specificity of 0.77. DISCUSSION: Overall, results provide preliminary support for the discriminant validity of EDE-Q scores among males. However, concerns remain regarding the measure's ability to comprehensively assess domains of disordered eating most relevant to males. Therefore, careful attention to the possibility for measurement bias and continued evaluation of the scale in males is encouraged.

Differences in Orgasm Frequency Among Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Men and Women in a U.S. National Sample.

There is a notable gap between heterosexual men and women in frequency of orgasm during sex. Little is known, however, about sexual orientation differences in orgasm frequency. We examined how over 30 different traits or behaviors were associated with frequency of orgasm when sexually intimate during the past month. We analyzed a large US sample of adults (N = 52,588) who identified as heterosexual men (n = 26,032), gay men (n = 452), bisexual men (n = 550), lesbian women (n = 340), bisexual women (n = 1112), and heterosexual women (n = 24,102). Heterosexual men were most likely to say they usually-always orgasmed when sexually intimate (95%), followed by gay men (89%), bisexual men (88%), lesbian women (86%), bisexual women (66%), and heterosexual women (65%). Compared to women who orgasmed less frequently, women who orgasmed more frequently were more likely to: receive more oral sex, have longer duration of last sex, be more satisfied with their relationship, ask for what they want in bed, praise their partner for something they did in bed, call/email to tease about doing something sexual, wear sexy lingerie, try new sexual positions, anal stimulation, act out fantasies, incorporate sexy talk, and express love during sex. Women were more likely to orgasm if their last sexual encounter included deep kissing, manual genital stimulation, and/or oral sex in addition to vaginal intercourse. We consider sociocultural and evolutionary explanations for these orgasm gaps. The results suggest a variety of behaviors couples can try to increase orgasm frequency.

Upset Over Sexual versus Emotional Infidelity Among Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Adults.

One hypothesis derived from evolutionary perspectives is that men are more upset than women by sexual infidelity and women are more upset than men by emotional infidelity. The proposed explanation is that men, in contrast to women, face the risk of unwittingly investing in genetically unrelated offspring. Most studies, however, have relied on small college or community samples of heterosexual participants. We examined upset over sexual versus emotional jealousy among 63,894 gay, lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual participants. Participants imagined which would upset them more: their partners having sex with someone else (but not falling in love with them) or their partners falling in love with someone else (but not having sex with them). Consistent with this evolutionary perspective, heterosexual men were more likely than heterosexual women to be upset by sexual infidelity (54 vs. 35 %) and less likely than heterosexual women to be upset by emotional infidelity (46 vs. 65 %). This gender difference emerged across age groups, income levels, history of being cheated on, history of being unfaithful, relationship type, and length. The gender difference, however, was limited to heterosexual participants. Bisexual men and women did not differ significantly from each other in upset over sexual infidelity (30 vs. 27 %), regardless of whether they were currently dating a man (35 vs. 29 %) or woman (28 vs. 20 %). Gay men and lesbian women also did not differ (32 vs. 34 %). The findings present strong evidence that a gender difference exists in a broad sample of U.S. adults, but only among heterosexuals.

Women Who Experience More Affectionate Touch Report Better Body Satisfaction and Relationship Outcomes.

Affectionate touch (e.g. hugging, handholding) is an essential component of many intimate relationships and is a primary contributor to overall relationship satisfaction as well as sexual satisfaction. Affectionate touch is understood to be a form of non-verbal communication in which the giver is expressing positive feelings toward the receiver. Here, we propose that affectionate touch also positively impacts receivers' body satisfaction, because affectionate touch is a positive message communicated toward the receiver's body. In a cross-sectional sample of romantically partnered women (N = 1,156), we assessed the association between affectionate touch frequency and body satisfaction. We also investigated whether affectionate touch is associated with relationship/sexual satisfaction in part because touch helps to improve women's evaluations of their own bodies. Our results showed that body satisfaction was a significant, partial mediator and a valid path through which affectionate touch shapes relationship quality. Receiving affectionate touch could bolster relationship satisfaction and self-perceptions among women. Given the prevalence of body dissatisfaction amongst women, these results suggest that the underexplored associations between affectionate touch and body satisfaction may have significant impacts on a wide array of future empirical and applied research trajectories.

Sexual regret: evidence for evolved sex differences.

Regret and anticipated regret enhance decision quality by helping people avoid making and repeating mistakes. Some of people's most intense regrets concern sexual decisions. We hypothesized evolved sex differences in women's and men's experiences of sexual regret. Because of women's higher obligatory costs of reproduction throughout evolutionary history, we hypothesized that sexual actions, particularly those involving casual sex, would be regretted more intensely by women than by men. In contrast, because missed sexual opportunities historically carried higher reproductive fitness costs for men than for women, we hypothesized that poorly chosen sexual inactions would be regretted more by men than by women. Across three studies (Ns = 200, 395, and 24,230), we tested these hypotheses using free responses, written scenarios, detailed checklists, and Internet sampling to achieve participant diversity, including diversity in sexual orientation. Across all data sources, results supported predicted psychological sex differences and these differences were localized in casual sex contexts. These findings are consistent with the notion that the psychology of sexual regret was shaped by recurrent sex differences in selection pressures operating over deep time.

The U.S. Body Project I: Inspirations and Lessons Learned.

The U.S. Body Project I examined predictors and prevalence of body image concerns among 11,620 adults recruited via Mechanical Turk. Researchers were invited to propose hypotheses or conduct secondary data analysis on the anonymized dataset. This resulted in 11 papers for this special issue. The first four papers examined the demographic predictors and prevalence of (1) body satisfaction, (2) objectification and tripartite model constructs, (3) sexuality-related body image concerns, and (4) face image satisfaction. The next four papers tested different structural equation models linking objectification and tripartite constructs to outcomes among women (5) and men (6) varying in body mass, and across racial (7) and sexual orientation (8) groups. We then tested measurement invariance of the scales (9) and introduced an abbreviated measure (10), and applied machine learning to examine associations among variables (11). Here we reflect on our personal and academic journeys leading to this project, and lessons learned.

Demographic and sociocultural predictors of face image satisfaction: The U.S. Body Project I.

Despite substantial literature surrounding how people process and perceive faces, there is very little research investigating how people evaluate their own faces. We examined how gender, body mass, race, age, and sexual orientation were linked to people's satisfaction with the appearance of their eyes, nose, facial shape, and face overall among 11,620 adults recruited via Mechanical Turk. Most people mostly or definitely agreed they were happy with their facial appearance. There were notable racial differences, with Asian participants tending to report greater dissatisfaction. For example, only 66% of Asian women and 60% of Asian men mostly or definitely agreed that they were happy with the appearance of their eyes, which was lower than other racial groups. BMI and age were not strongly associated with face satisfaction. Sexual minority men were less satisfied than heterosexual men. About one in four gay and bisexual men, compared to only one in seven heterosexual men, reported dissatisfaction with their overall facial appearance. Men and women with poorer face image engaged in more appearance surveillance, more strongly internalized the thin-ideal, and perceived stronger sociocultural pressures from peers, parents, and media. The current study highlights important sociocultural and demographic factors tied to poorer face image.

Examining the utility of nonlinear machine learning approaches versus linear regression for predicting body image outcomes: The U.S. Body Project I.

Most body image studies assess only linear relations between predictors and outcome variables, relying on techniques such as multiple Linear Regression. These predictor variables are often validated multi-item measures that aggregate individual items into a single scale. The advent of machine learning has made it possible to apply Nonlinear Regression algorithms-such as Random Forest and Deep Neural Networks-to identify potentially complex linear and nonlinear connections between a multitude of predictors (e.g., all individual items from a scale) and outcome (output) variables. Using a national dataset, we tested the extent to which these techniques allowed us to explain a greater share of the variance in body-image outcomes (adjusted R2) than possible with Linear Regression. We examined how well the connections between body dissatisfaction and dieting behavior could be predicted from demographic factors and measures derived from objectification theory and the tripartite-influence model. In this particular case, although Random Forest analyses sometimes provided greater predictive power than Linear Regression models, the advantages were small. More generally, however, this paper demonstrates how body image researchers might harness the power of machine learning techniques to identify previously undiscovered relations among body image variables.

Measurement invariance of body image measures by age, gender, sexual orientation, race, weight status, and age: The U.S. Body Project I.

Despite growing interest in comparing body image experiences across diverse groups, limited work has examined whether body image measures operate similarly across different populations, raising important questions about the appropriateness of comparing scale means across demographic groups. This study employed measurement invariance testing to evaluate whether such comparisons are appropriate with existing body image measures. Specifically, multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using a community sample of 11,620 men and women to test increasing levels of invariance (configural, metric, scalar) across five key demographic variables (age group, gender, sexual orientation, race, weight status) for five commonly used body image measures (the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4, the Body Surveillance subscale of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale, the Appearance Evaluation and Overweight Preoccupation subscales of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, and the Body Image Quality of Life Inventory). Results provided evidence of scalar (i.e., strong) invariance for all five measures across age, gender, sexual orientation, race, and weight status groups, indicating that the latent factors captured by these measures have the same meaning across demographic groups. Findings therefore support the comparison of scale/subscale means across multiple demographic groups for these body image measures.

An abbreviated 10-item, two-factor version of the Body Image Quality of Life Inventory (BIQLI-10): The U.S. Body Project I.

The objective of this study was to re-examine the factor structure of the Body Image Quality of Life Inventory (BIQLI), a measure that quantifies perceived effects of one's body image on various aspects of psychosocial functioning. Data on the 19-item BIQLI from a community sample of 11,620 U.S. men and women were split into cross-validation samples and underwent exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. An abbreviated 10-item, two-factor version of the BIQLI (BIQLI-10) was identified. The BIQLI-10 measures Social Relations & Psychological Well-Being with one subscale and Appearance & Body Management Activities with the other. Internal consistency was high for each subscale. The BIQLI-10 largely retained the convergent validity of the original 19-item BIQLI, as evidenced by nearly identical correlations with appearance evaluation, overweight preoccupation, body surveillance, appearance pressures, and appearance ideal internalization. Results also supported strong measurement invariance for the BIQLI-10 by age group, gender, sexual orientation, racial group, and weight status. Findings from this study suggest researchers may use this abbreviated version to increase nuance in the measurement of body image quality of life and reduce participant burden without compromising the psychometric integrity of the BIQLI. Further, results support the comparison of BIQLI-10 subscale scores across diverse groups.

Racial identity differences in pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction: The U.S. Body Project I.

Racial minority men and women face a wide variety of appearance-related pressures, including ones connected to their cultural backgrounds and phenotypic features associated with their identity. These body image concerns exist within a larger context, wherein racial minorities face pressures from multiple cultures or subcultures simultaneously to achieve unrealistic appearance ideals. However, limited research has investigated racial differences in the relationships between theorized sociocultural risk factors and body image in large samples. This study tests pathways from an integrated sociocultural model drawing on objectification theory and the tripartite influence model to three key body image outcomes: appearance evaluation, body image quality of life, and face image satisfaction. These pathways were tested using multigroup structural equation modeling in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian men and women (ns = 205-4797 per group). Although many hypothesized associations were similar in strength across groups, race moderated some of the pathways between sociocultural pressures (media, peer, family), internalization of appearance ideals (thin-ideal, muscular/athletic), appearance surveillance, and body image outcomes. Findings support the likely role of both shared and specific risk factors for body image outcomes, suggesting avenues for tailoring adapted interventions in order to target culturally-salient risk factors.

Sexual orientation differences in pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction: The U.S. Body Project I.

Objectification theory and the tripartite influence model provide useful frameworks for understanding the body image experiences of men and women. However, there is little systematic investigation of how sexual orientation moderates the links between these constructs and body image satisfaction. It has been hypothesized, for example, that the associations of surveillance (i.e., monitoring of one's appearance due to objectification by others) would be strongest for groups targeted by the male gaze (e.g., gay men, lesbian women, and bisexual men and women). Here we proposed an integrated sociocultural model and examined these pathways in multigroup structural equation models in a national sample of heterosexual, bisexual, and lesbian women (ns = 5395; 598; 213, respectively), and heterosexual, bisexual, and gay men (4869; 194; and 194, respectively) aged 18-65 years. Sexual orientation moderated some of these pathways. The most consistent pattern was that appearance pressures were internalized to a greater extent among bisexual participants. The pathways to poorer body image were generally similar among heterosexual and gay/lesbian men and women. These findings highlight the importance of examining sexual orientation-specific influences on body image across diverse groups, as well as the commonalities in the experiences of men and women across sexual orientations.

Pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction among women: The U.S. Body Project I.

Objectification theory proposes that widespread sexualization causes women to engage in surveillance of their appearance. We integrated this concept into a model with constructs from the tripartite influence model, which proposes that body dissatisfaction is a result of internalizing cultural notions of thin ideal beauty that stem from family, peer, and media appearance-related pressures. We tested this model with an online sample of 6327 adult women. Specifically, we tested whether these pressures predicted increased thin-ideal and muscular-ideal internalization, leading to greater body surveillance, and in turn lower appearance evaluation and body image quality of life. Structural equation modeling supported many aspects of the model. Family, peer, and media pressures related to higher thin-ideal internalization, which related to higher body surveillance and lower appearance evaluation. Peer and media pressures related to higher muscular-ideal internalization, which related to lower appearance evaluation. However, muscular-ideal internalization was not related to body image quality of life. An indirect relationship emerged between thin-ideal internalization and body image outcomes via body surveillance. Body mass index (BMI) moderated several of these model paths. Findings highlight the value of this integrated sociocultural model, and of BMI as an important moderating factor when examining objectification and tripartite influence models.