The in-use stability of the rituximab biosimilar Rixathon®/Riximyo® upon preparation for intravenous infusion.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the in-use physicochemical and biological stability of the Sandoz rituximab biosimilar, marketed under the trade names Rixathon® and Riximyo® in the European Union, upon preparation for intravenous infusion. METHODS: Three batches of Rixathon®/Riximyo® in the final month of their 36 month shelf life were exposed to room temperature and light for 14 days to recapitulate a major temperature excursion. Samples were diluted to the lowest allowable concentration of 1 mg/mL in 0.9% NaCl solution in either polypropylene or polyethylene infusion bags and stored for 14 or 30 days at 5 ± 3℃ followed by an additional 24 h at room temperature to simulate product handling. Samples stored in infusion bags were analyzed using SEC, CEX, non-reducing CE-SDS, peptide mapping and CDC to assess physicochemical and biological stability. RESULTS: Analysis of Rixathon®/Riximyo® diluted to the lowest allowable concentration in 0.9% sodium chloride in either polypropylene or polyethylene infusion bags revealed no change in molecular weight variants, charge variants, deamidation, oxidation, overall composition or potency over a 31-day period. CONCLUSION: Physicochemical and biological analyses demonstrate that Rixathon®/Riximyo® stability is not impacted by dilution and formulation conditions required for intravenous infusion, even under worst case conditions with regard to product shelf life, temperature excursion, light exposure, dilution factor and infusion bag storage time over a 31-day period.

Histone deacetylase inhibitor-induced sensitization to TNFalpha/TRAIL-mediated apoptosis in cervical carcinoma cells is dependent on HPV oncogene expression.

Histone-deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors (HDACi) can block proliferation and induce intrinsic apoptosis in human papillomavirus (HPV)-positive cervical carcinoma cells, independently of copy number and integration locus of the viral DNA. Using HPV18-positive HeLa cells as model systems, we provide evidence that HDAC inhibition leads to transcriptional suppression of c-FLIP, which negatively regulates extrinsic apoptosis by preventing the recruitment of caspase-8 to the death-inducing signaling complex. Consequently, HDACi pretreatment renders cervical cancer cells sensitive to TNFalpha and TRAIL-induced apoptosis. Already 5-hr incubation with TNFalpha or TRAIL was sufficient to eradicate more than 40% of pretreated cells, which are normally completely refractory against respective death-ligands alone even under long-term incubation. Ectopic expression of either short or long splicing variant of c-FLIP, c-FLIP(s) and c-FLIP(L), abrogates sensitization. Notably, combined HDACi/death ligand treatment did not result in eradication of HPV-negative cells, despite the fact that both c-FLIP isoforms were also downregulated. However, knocking down HPV18 E6/E7 transcription by siRNA prevents HDACi/death-ligand mediated apoptosis, indicating that continued viral oncogene expression favors sensitization. Here, the viral oncoprotein E7 seems to play a functional role, since only HPV16 E7-immortalized human keratinocytes underwent significant apoptosis on HDACi/TNFalpha treatment, whereas keratinocytes expressing only HPV16 E6 or primary keratinocytes were refractory under the same experimental conditions. Taken together, HDACi can be considered as an alternative therapeutic option in the treatment of premalignant and malignant lesions.

Comparative functional and pharmacological characterization of Sandoz proposed biosimilar adalimumab (GP2017): rationale for extrapolation across indications.

BACKGROUND: Biosimilars are approved biologics that match reference medicine in quality, safety, and efficacy. The development of Sandoz proposed biosimilar adalimumab (SPBA; GP2017) involved a target-directed, iterative state-of-the-art quality-by-design development program. Here, we describe the functional and pharmacological characterization of SPBA and its proposed mechanism of action in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. METHODS: Sensitive in vitro binding and functional characterization studies, and nonclinical evaluations (pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and safety/toxicology) were performed as part of a stepwise approach to confirm the biosimilarity of SPBA with reference adalimumab. RESULTS: Matching values were reported for SPBA and reference adalimumab in binding assays involving tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, complement 1q and human immune effector cell Fcγ receptor subtypes in cell-based bioassays for Fc receptor function (complement- and antibody-dependent cytotoxicity), and in apoptosis inhibition. Furthermore, SPBA and reference adalimumab were equivalent in terms of membrane TNF binding and induction of reverse signaling. Pharmacokinetics of SPBA and reference adalimumab were comparable in rabbits, and the two biologics were equally effective in a human TNF transgenic mouse model of polyarthritis. CONCLUSION: SPBA matches reference adalimumab with regards to target binding, functional, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic properties at the nonclinical level supporting its approval in all indications of the reference adalimumab.

Negative feedback regulation of MKK6 mRNA stability by p38alpha mitogen-activated protein kinase.

p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases play an important role in the regulation of cellular responses to all kinds of stresses. The most abundant and broadly expressed p38 MAP kinase is p38alpha, which can also control the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of several cell types. Here we show that the absence of p38alpha correlates with the up-regulation of one of its upstream activators, the MAP kinase kinase MKK6, in p38alpha(-/-) knockout mice and in cultured cells derived from them. In contrast, the expression levels of the p38 activators MKK3 and MKK4 are not affected in p38alpha-deficient cells. The increase in MKK6 protein concentration correlates with increased amounts of MKK6 mRNA in the p38alpha(-/-) cells. Pharmacological inhibition of p38alpha also up-regulates MKK6 mRNA levels in HEK293 cells. Conversely, reintroduction of p38alpha into p38alpha(-/-) cells reduces the levels of MKK6 protein and mRNA to the normal levels found in wild-type cells. Moreover, we show that the MKK6 mRNA is more stable in p38alpha(-/-) cells and that the 3'untranslated region of this mRNA can differentially regulate the stability of the lacZ reporter gene in a p38alpha-dependent manner. Our data indicate that p38alpha can negatively regulate the stability of the MKK6 mRNA and thus control the steady-state concentration of one of its upstream activators.

The structure-function relationship of disulfide bonds in etanercept.

Etanercept is a TNFα receptor Fc fusion protein used for the treatment of rheumatic disease and psoriasis. Physicochemical and functional investigation of process fractions during development of the etanercept biosimilar GP2015 (Erelzi®) revealed a correlation between reduced potency and incorrect disulfide bridging between specific cysteines in the receptor domain. This novel structure-function relationship was found to be the molecular basis for reduced potency in recent Enbrel® batches, which exhibit higher levels of incorrect disulfide bridging. Interestingly, incorrect disulfide bridging was found to be reversible under serum-like redox conditions, restoring potency to normal levels. This redox dependent reversibility suggests that these variants are likely not relevant for clinical efficacy once the drug enters the bloodstream. Nonetheless, incorrect disulfide bridging in etanercept represents a new quality attribute that is critical for biopharmaceutical functionality and should thus be carefully monitored and controlled to guarantee patient safety.

Characterization and non-clinical assessment of the proposed etanercept biosimilar GP2015 with originator etanercept (Enbrel(®)).

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Biosimilars are approved biologics that are comparable to an originator product with respect to quality, safety and efficacy. Herein, the authors describe the functional and non-clinical studies designed to determine the biosimilarity of GP2015 and originator etanercept (Enbrel®). METHODS: The development of an Enbrel biosimilar (GP2015) involved extensive characterization of the originator. A step-wise target-directed and iterative technical development program involving state-of-the-art functional characterization studies and non-clinical evaluations (pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and safety/toxicology) was applied with the aim of confirming that GP2015 is comparable to originator (Enbrel) at the non-clinical level. RESULTS: In in vitro tests, GP2015 and Enbrel had comparable binding affinities to TNF-α, C1q complement and a complete panel of Fc-Receptors. Comprehensive functional characterization testing confirmed the comparability of GP2015 with Enbrel in terms of its ability to bind to and neutralize TNF-α, which reflects the primary mechanism of action of etanercept. Non-clinical data confirmed that the proposed biosimilar to Enbrel, GP2015, is comparable with regards to its pharmacokinetic properties and pharmacodynamic activity, and efficacy as well as safety/toxicity. CONCLUSION: The proposed Enbrel biosimilar, GP2015, was shown to be comparable to its originator product in studies designed to confirm biosimilarity.

Physicochemical and functional comparability between the proposed biosimilar rituximab GP2013 and originator rituximab.

BACKGROUND: Regulatory approval for a biosimilar product is provided on the basis of its comparability to an originator product. A thorough physicochemical and functional comparability exercise is a key element in demonstrating biosimilarity. Here we report the characterization of a proposed biosimilar rituximab (GP2013) and originator rituximab. OBJECTIVE: To compare GP2013 with originator rituximab using an extensive array of routine analytical and extended characterization methods. METHODS: Primary and higher order protein structures were analyzed using a variety of methods that included high-performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS), peptide mapping with UV and MS detection, circular dichroism (CD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, hydrogen deuterium exchange (HDX) MS, 1D (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Charge and amino acid modifications were assessed using cation exchange chromatography (CEX) and peptide mapping using reversed-phase (RP) HPLC. Boronate affinity chromatography was used to determine the relative amount of glycation. Glycans were identified and quantified after 2-aminobenzamide (2-AB) labeling and separation using normal phase HPLC with fluorescence and MS detection, respectively. Glycan site occupancy was determined using reducing capillary electrophoresis with sodium dodecyl sulfate (CE-SDS). Size heterogeneity was determined using reducing and non-reducing CE-SDS, size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and asymmetric flow field flow fractionation (AF4). Biological characterization included a series of bioassays (in vitro target binding, antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity [ADCC], complement-dependent cytotoxicity [CDC] and apoptosis) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) Fc receptor binding assays. RESULTS: Intact mass analysis of GP2013 and the heavy and light chains using RP HPLC-ESI-MS revealed the expected molecular mass of rituximab. The amino acid sequence was shown to be identical between GP2013 and the originator rituximab. Further sequence confirmation using RP-HPLC-UV/MS peptide mapping showed non-distinguishable chromatograms for Lys-C digested GP2013 and originator rituximab. The higher order structure of GP2013 was shown to be indistinguishable from originator rituximab using a large panel of redundant and orthogonal methods. GP2013 and originator rituximab were comparable with regard to charge variants, specific amino acid modifications and the glycan pattern. GP2013 was also shown to have similar purity, aggregate and particle levels when compared with the originator. Functionally, and by using a comprehensive set of bioassays and binding assays covering a broad range of rituximab's functional activities, GP2013 could not be distinguished from originator rituximab. CONCLUSION: GP2013 was shown to be physicochemically highly similar to originator rituximab at the level of primary and higher order structure, post-translational modifications and size variants. An extensive functional characterization package indicated that GP2013 has the same biological properties as originator rituximab.

Dynamic fluctuations of protein-carbohydrate interactions promote protein aggregation.

Protein-carbohydrate interactions are important for glycoprotein structure and function. Antibodies of the IgG class, with increasing significance as therapeutics, are glycosylated at a conserved site in the constant Fc region. We hypothesized that disruption of protein-carbohydrate interactions in the glycosylated domain of antibodies leads to the exposure of aggregation-prone motifs. Aggregation is one of the main problems in protein-based therapeutics because of immunogenicity concerns and decreased efficacy. To explore the significance of intramolecular interactions between aromatic amino acids and carbohydrates in the IgG glycosylated domain, we utilized computer simulations, fluorescence analysis, and site-directed mutagenesis. We find that the surface exposure of one aromatic amino acid increases due to dynamic fluctuations. Moreover, protein-carbohydrate interactions decrease upon stress, while protein-protein and carbohydrate-carbohydrate interactions increase. Substitution of the carbohydrate-interacting aromatic amino acids with non-aromatic residues leads to a significantly lower stability than wild type, and to compromised binding to Fc receptors. Our results support a mechanism for antibody aggregation via decreased protein-carbohydrate interactions, leading to the exposure of aggregation-prone regions, and to aggregation.

c-FLIPR, a new regulator of death receptor-induced apoptosis.

c-FLIPs (c-FLICE inhibitory proteins) play an essential role in regulation of death receptor-induced apoptosis. Multiple splice variants of c-FLIP have been described on the mRNA level; so far only two of them, c-FLIP(L) and c-FLIP(S,) had been found to be expressed at the protein level. In this report, we reveal the endogenous expression of a third isoform of c-FLIP. We demonstrate its presence in a number of T and B cell lines as well as in primary human T cells. We identified this isoform as c-FLIP(R), a death effector domain-only splice variant previously identified on the mRNA level. Impor-/tantly, c-FLIP(R) is recruited to the CD95 (Fas/APO-1) death-inducing signaling complex upon CD95 stimulation. Several properties of c-FLIP(R) are similar to c-FLIP(S): both isoforms have a short half-life, a similar pattern of expression during activation of primary human T cells, and are strongly induced in T cells upon CD3/CD28 costimulation. Taken together, our data demonstrate endogenous expression of c-FLIP(R) and similar roles of c-FLIP(R) and c-FLIP(S) isoforms in death receptor-mediated apoptosis.