Striatonigral control of movement velocity in mice.

The basal ganglia have long been implicated in action initiation. Using three-dimensional motion capture, we quantified the effects of optogenetic stimulation of the striatonigral (direct) pathway on movement kinematics. We generated transgenic mice with channelrhodopsin-2 expression in striatal neurons that express the D1-like dopamine receptor. With optic fibres placed in the sensorimotor striatum, an area known to contain movement velocity-related single units, photo-stimulation reliably produced movements that could be precisely quantified with our motion capture programme. A single light pulse was sufficient to elicit movements with short latencies (< 30 ms). Increasing stimulation frequency increased movement speed, with a highly linear relationship. These findings support the hypothesis that the sensorimotor striatum is part of a velocity controller that controls rate of change in body configurations.

Brain region-specific disruption of Shank3 in mice reveals a dissociation for cortical and striatal circuits in autism-related behaviors.

We previously reported a new line of Shank3 mutant mice which led to a complete loss of Shank3 by deleting exons 4-22 (Δe4-22) globally. Δe4-22 mice display robust ASD-like behaviors including impaired social interaction and communication, increased stereotypical behavior and excessive grooming, and a profound deficit in instrumental learning. However, the anatomical and neural circuitry underlying these behaviors are unknown. We generated mice with Shank3 selectively deleted in forebrain, striatum, and striatal D1 and D2 cells. These mice were used to interrogate the circuit/brain-region and cell-type specific role of Shank3 in the expression of autism-related behaviors. Whole-cell patch recording and biochemical analyses were used to study the synaptic function and molecular changes in specific brain regions. We found perseverative exploratory behaviors in mice with deletion of Shank3 in striatal inhibitory neurons. Conversely, self-grooming induced lesions were observed in mice with deletion of Shank3 in excitatory neurons of forebrain. However, social, communicative, and instrumental learning behaviors were largely unaffected in these mice, unlike what is seen in global Δe4-22 mice. We discovered unique patterns of change for the biochemical and electrophysiological findings in respective brain regions that reflect the complex nature of transcriptional regulation of Shank3. Reductions in Homer1b/c and membrane hyper-excitability were observed in striatal loss of Shank3. By comparison, Shank3 deletion in hippocampal neurons resulted in increased NMDAR-currents and GluN2B-containing NMDARs. These results together suggest that Shank3 may differentially regulate neural circuits that control behavior. Our study supports a dissociation of Shank3 functions in cortical and striatal neurons in ASD-related behaviors, and it illustrates the complexity of neural circuit mechanisms underlying these behaviors.

Striatal fast-spiking interneurons selectively modulate circuit output and are required for habitual behavior.

Habit formation is a behavioral adaptation that automates routine actions. Habitual behavior correlates with broad reconfigurations of dorsolateral striatal (DLS) circuit properties that increase gain and shift pathway timing. The mechanism(s) for these circuit adaptations are unknown and could be responsible for habitual behavior. Here we find that a single class of interneuron, fast-spiking interneurons (FSIs), modulates all of these habit-predictive properties. Consistent with a role in habits, FSIs are more excitable in habitual mice compared to goal-directed and acute chemogenetic inhibition of FSIs in DLS prevents the expression of habitual lever pressing. In vivo recordings further reveal a previously unappreciated selective modulation of SPNs based on their firing patterns; FSIs inhibit most SPNs but paradoxically promote the activity of a subset displaying high fractions of gamma-frequency spiking. These results establish a microcircuit mechanism for habits and provide a new example of how interneurons mediate experience-dependent behavior.

A GABAergic nigrotectal pathway for coordination of drinking behavior.

The contribution of basal ganglia outputs to consummatory behavior remains poorly understood. We recorded from the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNR), the major basal ganglia output nucleus, during self-initiated drinking in mice. The firing rates of many lateral SNR neurons were time-locked to individual licks. These neurons send GABAergic projections to the deep layers of the orofacial region of the lateral tectum (superior colliculus, SC). Many tectal neurons were also time-locked to licking, but their activity was usually in antiphase with that of SNR neurons, suggesting inhibitory nigrotectal projections. We used optogenetics to selectively activate the GABAergic nigrotectal afferents in the deep layers of the SC. Photo-stimulation of the nigrotectal projections transiently inhibited the activity of the lick-related tectal neurons, disrupted their licking-related oscillatory pattern and suppressed self-initiated drinking. These results demonstrate that GABAergic nigrotectal projections have a crucial role in coordinating drinking behavior.

Altered mGluR5-Homer scaffolds and corticostriatal connectivity in a Shank3 complete knockout model of autism.

Human neuroimaging studies suggest that aberrant neural connectivity underlies behavioural deficits in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), but the molecular and neural circuit mechanisms underlying ASDs remain elusive. Here, we describe a complete knockout mouse model of the autism-associated Shank3 gene, with a deletion of exons 4-22 (Δe4-22). Both mGluR5-Homer scaffolds and mGluR5-mediated signalling are selectively altered in striatal neurons. These changes are associated with perturbed function at striatal synapses, abnormal brain morphology, aberrant structural connectivity and ASD-like behaviour. In vivo recording reveals that the cortico-striatal-thalamic circuit is tonically hyperactive in mutants, but becomes hypoactive during social behaviour. Manipulation of mGluR5 activity attenuates excessive grooming and instrumental learning differentially, and rescues impaired striatal synaptic plasticity in Δe4-22(-/-) mice. These findings show that deficiency of Shank3 can impair mGluR5-Homer scaffolding, resulting in cortico-striatal circuit abnormalities that underlie deficits in learning and ASD-like behaviours. These data suggest causal links between genetic, molecular, and circuit mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of ASDs.

Beyond reward prediction errors: the role of dopamine in movement kinematics.

We recorded activity of dopamine (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta in unrestrained mice while monitoring their movements with video tracking. Our approach allows an unbiased examination of the continuous relationship between single unit activity and behavior. Although DA neurons show characteristic burst firing following cue or reward presentation, as previously reported, their activity can be explained by the representation of actual movement kinematics. Unlike neighboring pars reticulata GABAergic output neurons, which can represent vector components of position, DA neurons represent vector components of velocity or acceleration. We found neurons related to movements in four directions-up, down, left, right. For horizontal movements, there is significant lateralization of neurons: the left nigra contains more rightward neurons, whereas the right nigra contains more leftward neurons. The relationship between DA activity and movement kinematics was found on both appetitive trials using sucrose and aversive trials using air puff, showing that these neurons belong to a velocity control circuit that can be used for any number of purposes, whether to seek reward or to avoid harm. In support of this conclusion, mimicry of the phasic activation of DA neurons with selective optogenetic stimulation could also generate movements. Contrary to the popular hypothesis that DA neurons encode reward prediction errors, our results suggest that nigrostriatal DA plays an essential role in controlling the kinematics of voluntary movements. We hypothesize that DA signaling implements gain adjustment for adaptive transition control, and describe a new model of the basal ganglia (BG) in which DA functions to adjust the gain of the transition controller. This model has significant implications for our understanding of movement disorders implicating DA and the BG.