Massive testing in the Galapagos Islands and low positivity rate to control SARS-CoV-2 spread during the first semester of the COVID-19 pandemic: a story of success for Ecuador and South America.

INTRODUCTION: During the first months of the COVID-19 pandemic in Latin America, countries like Ecuador, Peru and Colombia experienced chaotic scenarios with public health systems collapsing and lack of testing capacity to control the spread of the virus. In main cities like Guayaquil in Ecuador, dramatic situations such as corpses in the streets were internationally broadcasted. METHODS: While the COVID-19 pandemic was devastating South America, SARS-CoV-2 transmission was successfully managed in the Galapagos Islands due to the implementation of a massive screening strategy including hospitalized and community-dwelling populations, and travel restrictions facilitated by its geographical location (972 km from the Ecuadorian continental territory). Floreana Island was one of the few locations in the world that remained COVID-19 free during 2020. RESULTS: In this study, we retrospectively analyzed the data related to SARS-CoV-2 massive testing campaigns from April to September 2020 in the Galapagos Islands, and found this territory to have the lowest positivity rate in South America (4.8-6.7%) and the highest testing ratio among Ecuadorian provinces (9.87% of the population, which is 2480 out of 25 124 inhabitants) during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. CONCLUSION: This story of success was possible because of the interinstitutional collaboration between the regional government of Galapagos Islands (Consejo de Gobierno), the local authorities (Gobiernos Autonomos Descentralizados de Santa Cruz, San Cristobal and Isabela), the regional authorities from Ecuadorian Ministry of Health, the Agencia de Regulación y Control de la Bioseguridad y Cuarentena para Galápagos and Universidad de Las Américas.

Fast, Simple, and Cheap: the Kudoh-Ogawa Swab Method as an Alternative to the Petroff-Lowenstein-Jensen Method for Culturing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

The objective of this study was to compare the diagnostic yield of the Kudoh-Ogawa (K-O) swab method for the culturing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from clinical samples with the standard Petroff-Lowenstein-Jensen (P-LJ) procedure. A total of 2,287 sputum samples and 685 extrapulmonary clinical specimens were processed with both decontamination methods and compared for M. tuberculosis detection rate, recovery of M. tuberculosis colonies, and culture contamination. Overall, 23.9% and 23.5% of the samples, processed with, respectively, the K-O swab method and the P-LJ procedure, yielded M. tuberculosis after 8 weeks of incubation. The K-O swab method and the P-LJ procedure provided comparable diagnostic yields for extrapulmonary clinical specimens (P = 0.688), but the K-O method showed a slightly but statistically significantly higher diagnostic yield for pulmonary samples (P = 0.002). No significant difference for culture contamination or colony recovery was found for either method. The turnaround time for the isolation of M. tuberculosis was significantly shorter for the K-O swab method, with 77% of the M. tuberculosis cultures being positive within 3 weeks of incubation, and only 6.1% positivity for the P-LJ method. Concerning the workload, the K-O swab method needs a minimum sample manipulation and takes less than 4 min per sample, as the samples are not centrifuged in this procedure. The K-O swab method is an efficient and fast (in terms of sample processing and culture growth) alternative for culturing M. tuberculosis from either pulmonary or extrapulmonary clinical specimens. The method is particularly suitable for laboratories with a high workload and for laboratories lacking a special infrastructure.

Poor sensitivity of "AccuPower SARS-CoV-2 real time RT-PCR kit (Bioneer, South Korea)".

BACKGROUND: Several molecular kits are available for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis, mostly lacking of proper clinical evaluation due to the emergency caused by COVID19 pandemia, particularly at developing countries like Ecuador. OBJECTIVE: We carried out an evaluation of the clinical performance of "AccuPower SARS-CoV-2 Real Time RT-PCR kit" (Bioneer, South Korea) for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis using 2019-nCoV CDC EUA kit (IDT, USA) as a gold standard. RESULTS: 48 clinical specimens were included on the study, 38 tested SARS-CoV-2 positive and 10 SARS-CoV-2 negative for 2019-nCoV CDC EUA kit. For "AccuPower SARS-CoV-2 Real Time RT-PCR kit", only 30 were SARS-CoV-2 positive, indicating a low clinical performance with sensitivity of 78.9%. Moreover, the limit of detection for "AccuPower SARS-CoV-2 Real Time RT-PCR kit" was estimated to be higher than 40,000 viral RNA copies/mL of sample. CONCLUSIONS: Proper clinical performance evaluation studies from government agencies at developing countries should be mandatory prior to clinical use authorization of SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis kits, particularly when those kits lack of either FDA or its country of origin clinical use authorization, to prevent the distribution of low quality products that may have a negative impact of COVID19 surveillance at developing countries.

Serology for Neosporosis, Q fever and Brucellosis to assess the cause of abortion in two dairy cattle herds in Ecuador.

BACKGROUND: Determining the infectious cause of abortion in cattle is difficult. This case-control study was set up to investigate the infectious causes of abortion by determining the seroprevalence of three reproductive pathogens in dairy cattle in Ecuador and their association with abortion: Brucella abortus, Neospora caninum and Coxiella burnetii. RESULTS: Ninety-five blood samples were obtained from cows that had experienced a mid- or late gestation abortion of their first calf and seventy-seven samples from a control group of cows with the same age that did not experience abortion problems. No antibodies were detected for B. abortus in any of the serum samples, but a high seroprevalence for both C. burnetii (52.9%) and N. caninum infection (21.5%) was found in group of cows. The seroprevalence of N. caninum infection in cattle that had experienced abortions was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the seroprevalence in the control cows on one of the cattle farms, but no association between abortion and seropositivity for C. burnetii was found. CONCLUSION: We conclude that Neosporosis plays an important role in the epidemiology of abortion on one cattle farm, but that Q fever is apparently not an important cause for abortion in this setting.

Spontaneous Release Regulates Synaptic Scaling in the Embryonic Spinal Network In Vivo.

UNLABELLED: Homeostatic plasticity mechanisms maintain cellular or network spiking activity within a physiologically functional range through compensatory changes in synaptic strength or intrinsic cellular excitability. Synaptic scaling is one form of homeostatic plasticity that is triggered after blockade of spiking or neurotransmission in which the strengths of all synaptic inputs to a cell are multiplicatively scaled upward or downward in a compensatory fashion. We have shown previously that synaptic upscaling could be triggered in chick embryo spinal motoneurons by complete blockade of spiking or GABAA receptor (GABAAR) activation for 2 d in vivo Here, we alter GABAAR activation in a more physiologically relevant manner by chronically adjusting presynaptic GABA release in vivo using nicotinic modulators or an mGluR2 agonist. Manipulating GABAAR activation in this way triggered scaling in a mechanistically similar manner to scaling induced by complete blockade of GABAARs. Remarkably, we find that altering action-potential (AP)-independent spontaneous release was able to fully account for the observed bidirectional scaling, whereas dramatic changes in spiking activity associated with spontaneous network activity had little effect on quantal amplitude. The reliance of scaling on an AP-independent process challenges the plasticity's relatedness to spiking in the living embryonic spinal network. Our findings have implications for the trigger and function of synaptic scaling and suggest that spontaneous release functions to regulate synaptic strength homeostatically in vivo SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Homeostatic synaptic scaling is thought to prevent inappropriate levels of spiking activity through compensatory adjustments in the strength of synaptic inputs. Therefore, it is thought that perturbations in spike rate trigger scaling. Here, we find that dramatic changes in spiking activity in the embryonic spinal cord have little effect on synaptic scaling; conversely, alterations in GABAA receptor activation due to action-potential-independent GABA vesicle release can trigger scaling. The findings suggest that scaling in the living embryonic spinal cord functions to maintain synaptic strength and challenge the view that scaling acts to regulate spiking activity homeostatically. Finally, the results indicate that fetal exposure to drugs that influence GABA spontaneous release, such as nicotine, could profoundly affect synaptic maturation.

In vivo synaptic scaling is mediated by GluA2-lacking AMPA receptors in the embryonic spinal cord.

When spiking activity within a network is perturbed for hours to days, compensatory changes in synaptic strength are triggered that are thought to be important for the homeostatic maintenance of network or cellular spiking activity. In one form of this homeostatic plasticity, called synaptic scaling, all of a cell's AMPAergic miniature postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) are increased or decreased by some scaling factor. Although synaptic scaling has been observed in a variety of systems, the mechanisms that underlie AMPAergic scaling have been controversial. Certain studies find that synaptic scaling is mediated by GluA2-lacking calcium receptors (CP-AMPARs), whereas others have found that scaling is mediated by GluA2-containing calcium-impermeable receptors (CI-AMPARs). Spontaneous network activity is observed in most developing circuits, and in the spinal cord this activity drives embryonic movements. Blocking spontaneous network activity in the chick embryo by infusing lidocaine in vivo triggers synaptic scaling in spinal motoneurons; here we show that AMPAergic scaling occurs through increases in mEPSC conductance that appear to be mediated by the insertion of GluA2-lacking AMPA receptors at the expense of GluA2-containing receptors. We have previously reported that in vivo blockade of GABAA transmission, at a developmental stage when GABA is excitatory, also triggered AMPAergic synaptic scaling. Here, we show that this form of AMPAergic scaling is also mediated by CP-AMPARs. These findings suggest that AMPAergic scaling triggered by blocking spiking activity or GABAA receptor transmission represents similar phenomena, supporting the idea that activity blockade triggers scaling by reducing GABAA transmission.

A first insight into seropositivity of Neospora caninum and associated risk factors in free-roaming dogs from Ecuador.

Neosporosis is a worldwide parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Neospora caninum. It can cause economic losses to farmers due to its relationship with abortions and neonatal mortality in cows. Dogs play a key role in its spread as they are considered definitive hosts. In this study, we determined for the first time the seropositivity of N. caninum infection in dogs from Ecuador and evaluated potential risk factors. A total number of 339 free-roaming dogs from the three main regions of Ecuador (Coastal, Andean, and Amazonian regions) were included in the study and classified either as urban or rural dogs. Serum samples were collected from November 2018 to May 2019, and analyzed with a commercial ELISA test. An overall seropositivity of 6.8 % (CI: 95 %, 2.8 % - 11.7 %) was found in N. caninum infection with no statistical differences among regions or urban/rural dogs. This is the first surveillance of N. caninum in Ecuador, confirming a country-wide distribution of this pathogen. Considering the large populations of free-roaming dogs in Ecuador, a One Health approach for surveillance and managing N. caninum in dogs is needed to protect either livestock or wildlife.

Integrity at stake: confronting "publish or perish" in the developing world and emerging economies.

The scientific community faces significant ethical challenges due to the "publish or perish" culture, particularly in developing and emerging economies. This paper explores the widespread unethical practices in scientific publishing, including the sale of authorships, the proliferation of "paper mills," and the misuse of artificial intelligence to produce fraudulent research. These practices undermine the integrity of scientific research, skew publication metrics, and distort academic rankings. This study examines various instances of academic fraud, emphasizing the impact on low-income countries, with specific cases from Latin America. Recommendations include stricter verification of authorship, disciplinary measures for scientific fraud, and policies promoting transparency and accountability in research. Addressing these challenges is crucial for maintaining the integrity and credibility of scientific endeavors globally.

Molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Ecuador: Recent advances and future challenges.

Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the three leading causes of death from a single infectious agent, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), together with COVID-19 and HIV/AIDS. This disease places a heavy burden on countries with low socio-economic development and aggravates existing inequalities. For the year 2021, estimations for Ecuador were 8500 TB cases, of which 370 were associated to multiple drug resistance (TB-MDR), and 1160 deaths. In the same year, Ecuador notified 5973 total cases, 401 of them were TB-MDR, pointing out an under diagnosis problem. The few molecular epidemiology studies available conclude that L4 is the most prevalent MTB lineage in Ecuador (with LAM as the main L4 sublineage), but L2-Beijing family is also present at low prevalence. Nevertheless, with less than 1 % MTB isolates genetically characterized by either MIRU-VNTR, spolygotyping or WGS to date, molecular epidemiology research must me improved to assist the TB surveillance and control program in Ecuador.

The Impact of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis RDRio Subfamily on Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Latin America: A Comprehensive Review.

Latin American region is a high-burden setting for tuberculosis where multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is among the main challenge to move forward the End TB Strategy goals. It has been shown that MDR-TB is associated to certain Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) lineages like L2-Beijing sublineage or L4-LAM. Although L2-Beijing is present in South America, the L4 lineage is the most prevalent with values ranging from 75% to 99% depending on the country. Within L4, Latin American-Mediterranean (LAM) family is the most prevalent. Moreover, within LAM, RDRio subfamily is present in high prevalence in several countries in South America like Venezuela or Brazil. RDRio has been associated to MDR-TB in several studies in Brazil but more epidemiological information is needed for South America. Here we discuss the problem of MDR-TB in Latin America and the potential threat that RDRio could represent. At this time, more molecular epidemiology studies are necessary to improve TB surveillance programs in Latin America by tracking MTB strains potentially responsible for MDR-TB spread.

SARS-CoV-2 infection in synanthropic rats from Guayaquil city (Ecuador) during COVID-19 pandemic: A proxy to prevent wild reservoirs in the tropics.

Human-to-animal reverse transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is a risk for new reservoirs' emergence and new variants' evolution. SARS-CoV-2 infection of synanthropic rodents in urban settings has been reported during COVID-19 in New York and Mexico cities. In this study, we addressed the potential transmission of SARS-CoV-2 to synanthropic rats in the city of Guayaquil (Ecuador) during the COVID-19 pandemic. A total number of 234 rats were collected and analyzed for SARS-CoV-2 detection by RT-qPCR. A positivity rate of 6 % (14 rats) was found, and SARS-CoV-2 infection was confirmed by Sanger sequencing of the viral genome. Our results confirm the potential risk of synanthropic rats as reservoirs for SARS-CoV-2 infection. This is worrisome for low and middle income countries like Ecuador, where pest and waste control in urban settings is challenging. Moreover, the risk of spillover to wild fauna is a concern in Guayaquil, where synanthropic fauna includes raccoons or coatis and forest patches with a wild population of felids or primates existing within the city limits. In this context, SARS-CoV-2 sentinel surveillance of synanthropic rodents could serve as a proxy for a One Health approach to prevent the emergence of new wild reservoirs.

Epidemiology of marine turtle fibropapillomatosis and tumour-associated chelonid alphaherpesvirus 5 (ChHV5; Scutavirus chelonidalpha5) in North-Western Mexico: a scoping review implementing the one health approach.

Fibropapillomatosis (FP) - tumour-associated chelonid alphaherpesvirus 5 (ChHV5; Scutavirus chelonidalpha5) - is a disease that affect marine turtles around the world, and characterized by the formation of cutaneous tumours that can appear anywhere on the body. We carried out a thorough literature search (from 1990 to 2024) in the feeding sites of North-western Mexico, a region that hosts important habitats for feeding, development, and reproduction for five of the seven existing sea turtle species. We found 18 reports recording a total of 32 cases of FP and/or ChHV5/Scutavirus chelonidalpha5 in coastal and insular areas of North-western Mexico. Baja California Sur resulted with the highest number of cases (75%). While the first case of ChHV5/Scutavirus chelonidalpha5 infection was reported in 2004, the presence of FP tumours was reported in 2014 and became more frequent between 2019 and 2024. The affected species were black, Chelonia mydas (50%), olive ridley, Lepidochelys olivacea (46.8%) and loggerhead turtles, Caretta caretta (3.2%). Tumours occurred mainly in anterior flippers (46.1%) and neck (22.5%), and most had a nodular and verrucous appearance with a rough surface. In the study region, there is a potential sign of the emergence of the ChHV5/Scutavirus chelonidalpha5 infections and FP disease during the last 20 years, with a rapid increase during the last 10 years. As long as infections by ChHV5/Scutavirus chelonidalpha5 and the prevalence of the FP disease may be potentially influenced by anthropogenic activities, a One Health approach is needed to understand and improve sea turtles' health.

A first insight into tuberculosis transmission at the border of Ecuador and Colombia: a retrospective study of the population structure of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Esmeraldas province.

Objective: Tuberculosis (TB) is a major public health concern in Ecuador and Colombia, considering that both countries are high-burden TB settings. Molecular epidemiology is crucial to understand the transmission dynamics of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) and to identify active transmission clusters of regional importance. Methods: We studied the potential transmission of TB between Colombia and Ecuador through the analysis of the population structure of MTBC lineages circulating in the Ecuadorian province of Esmeraldas at the border with Colombia. A total of 105 MTBC strains were characterized by 24-loci MIRU-VNTR and spoligotyping. Results: MTBC lineage 4 is only present in Esmeraldas; no MTBC strains belonging to Lineage 2-sublineage Beijing were found despite its presence in other provinces of Ecuador and, in Colombia. Genotyping results revealed a high degree of diversity for MTBC in Esmeraldas: Neither active transmission clusters within this province nor including MTBC strains from Colombia or other provinces of Ecuador were found. Conclusion: Our data suggest that tuberculosis dynamics in this rural and isolated area may be not related to highly transmitted strains but could be influenced by other health determinants that favor TB relapse such as poverty and poor health system access. Further studies including a larger number of MTBC strains from Esmeraldas are necessary to test this hypothesis.

First report of Bartonella henselae and Bartonella clarridgeiae carriage in stray cats from Ecuador and its link to a cat scratch disease outbreak in 2022.

INTRODUCTION: The genus Bartonella includes species and subspecies of fastidious, facultative intracellular Gram-negative bacilli that infect a wide variety of mammalian reservoirs including cats and humans. In 2022, the Ecuadorian Ministry of Health reported an outbreak of cat scratch disease caused by B. henselae in the city of Guayaquil. Therefore, we aimed to characterize the presence of Bartonella spp. in domestic and stray cats from the area of Guayaquil where the outbreak happened in 2022. METHODS: Whole blood samples of 100 domestic and stray cats were collected. Riboflavin synthase (ribC) and 16S rRNA genes detection was performed by PCR using Bartonella spp. specific primers, followed by Sanger sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS: 14 cats were positive for Bartonella spp. carriage. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the presence of 12 cats infected with B. henselae and 2 cats with B. clarridgeiae. CONCLUSIONS: There is a high prevalence of Bartonella spp. carriage in cats in the city of Guayaquil within the area where a recent cat scratch disease outbreak happened. Considering the high presence of cats and other domestic and stray animals in the city of Guayaquil, a One Health approach for surveillance and prevention of zoonotic diseases like cat scratch disease is needed.

The Crisis of Macrolide Resistance in Pneumococci in Latin America.

Macrolide antibiotics are recommended for the treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia and invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD). Prior to 2000, ∼10% of Streptococcus pneumoniae strains isolated from IPD cases in Latin American countries were resistant to macrolides. The mechanism of resistance to macrolides was associated mainly with the efflux pump known as the macrolide efflux genetic assembly, since most pneumococcal strains carried the mef(A/E) gene, whereas <6% strains carried both the methylase gene ermB and mef(A/E). In the first decade of this century, a significant increase in the prevalence of macrolide resistance was observed in pneumococcal strains in both Mexico and Peru. Approximately 30% of S. pneumoniae strains in these countries were already resistant to erythromycin, while the prevalence in Colombia, Argentina, and Brazil remained below 10%. During the last decade, we have been experiencing a worrisome increase in pneumococcal strains carrying resistance to macrolides, with a prevalence of up to 80% for resistance to erythromycin. The mechanism for disseminating macrolide resistance has evolved. Currently, more than 55% of invasive S. pneumoniae macrolide-resistant strains carry both the ermB and the mef(A/E)/mel genes. Lessons learned from the current macrolide resistance crisis in Latin America can inform interventions in other regions.