Altered proliferation and networks in neural cells derived from idiopathic autistic individuals.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are common, complex and heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorders. Cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for ASD pathogenesis have been proposed based on genetic studies, brain pathology and imaging, but a major impediment to testing ASD hypotheses is the lack of human cell models. Here, we reprogrammed fibroblasts to generate induced pluripotent stem cells, neural progenitor cells (NPCs) and neurons from ASD individuals with early brain overgrowth and non-ASD controls with normal brain size. ASD-derived NPCs display increased cell proliferation because of dysregulation of a ß-catenin/BRN2 transcriptional cascade. ASD-derived neurons display abnormal neurogenesis and reduced synaptogenesis leading to functional defects in neuronal networks. Interestingly, defects in neuronal networks could be rescued by insulin growth factor 1 (IGF-1), a drug that is currently in clinical trials for ASD. This work demonstrates that selection of ASD subjects based on endophenotypes unraveled biologically relevant pathway disruption and revealed a potential cellular mechanism for the therapeutic effect of IGF-1.

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase and glycogen synthase kinase 3ß regulate gephyrin postsynaptic aggregation and GABAergic synaptic function in a calpain-dependent mechanism.

Molecular mechanisms of plasticity at GABAergic synapses are currently poorly understood. To identify signaling cascades that converge onto GABAergic postsynaptic density proteins, we performed MS analysis using gephyrin isolated from rat brain and identified multiple novel phosphorylation and acetylation residues on gephyrin. Here, we report the characterization of one of these phosphoresidues, Ser-268, which when dephosphorylated leads to the formation of larger postsynaptic scaffolds. Using a combination of mutagenesis, pharmacological treatment, and biochemical assays, we identify ERK as the kinase phosphorylating Ser-268 and describe a functional interaction between residues Ser-268 and Ser-270. We further demonstrate that alterations in gephyrin clustering via ERK modulation are reflected by amplitude and frequency changes in miniature GABAergic postsynaptic currents. We unravel novel mechanisms for activity- and ERK-dependent calpain action on gephyrin, which are likely relevant in the context of cellular signaling affecting GABAergic transmission and homeostatic synaptic plasticity in pathology.

Regulation of GABAergic synapse formation and plasticity by GSK3beta-dependent phosphorylation of gephyrin.

Postsynaptic scaffolding proteins ensure efficient neurotransmission by anchoring receptors and signaling molecules in synapse-specific subcellular domains. In turn, posttranslational modifications of scaffolding proteins contribute to synaptic plasticity by remodeling the postsynaptic apparatus. Though these mechanisms are operant in glutamatergic synapses, little is known about regulation of GABAergic synapses, which mediate inhibitory transmission in the CNS. Here, we focused on gephyrin, the main scaffolding protein of GABAergic synapses. We identify a unique phosphorylation site in gephyrin, Ser270, targeted by glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK3ß) to modulate GABAergic transmission. Abolishing Ser270 phosphorylation increased the density of gephyrin clusters and the frequency of miniature GABAergic postsynaptic currents in cultured hippocampal neurons. Enhanced, phosphorylation-dependent gephyrin clustering was also induced in vitro and in vivo with lithium chloride. Lithium is a GSK3ß inhibitor used therapeutically as mood-stabilizing drug, which underscores the relevance of this posttranslational modification for synaptic plasticity. Conversely, we show that gephyrin availability for postsynaptic clustering is limited by Ca(2+)-dependent gephyrin cleavage by the cysteine protease calpain-1. Together, these findings identify gephyrin as synaptogenic molecule regulating GABAergic synaptic plasticity, likely contributing to the therapeutic action of lithium.

Collybistin splice variants differentially interact with gephyrin and Cdc42 to regulate gephyrin clustering at GABAergic synapses.

Collybistin (CB) is a guanine-nucleotide-exchange factor (GEF) selectively activating Cdc42. CB mutations cause X-linked mental retardation due to defective clustering of gephyrin, a postsynaptic protein associated with both glycine and GABA(A) receptors. Using a combination of biochemistry and cell biology we provide novel insights into the roles of the CB2 splice variants, CB2(SH3+) and CB2(SH3-), and their substrate, Cdc42, in regulating gephyrin clustering at GABAergic synapses. Transfection of Myc-tagged CB2(SH3+) and CB2(SH3-) into cultured neurons revealed strong, but distinct, effects promoting postsynaptic gephyrin clustering, denoting mechanistic differences in their function. In addition, overexpression of constitutively active or dominant-negative Cdc42 mutants identified a new function of Cdc42 in regulating the shape and size of postsynaptic gephyrin clusters. Using biochemical assays and native brain tissue, we identify a direct interaction between gephyrin and Cdc42, independent of its activation state. Finally, our data show that CB2(SH3-), but not CB2(SH3+), can form a ternary complex with gephyrin and Cdc42, providing a biochemical substrate for the distinct contribution of these CB isoforms in gephyrin clustering at GABAergic postsynaptic sites. Taken together, our results identify CB and Cdc42 as major regulators of GABAergic postsynaptic densities.

Unliganded thyroid hormone receptor alpha1 impairs adult hippocampal neurogenesis.

Thyroid hormone regulates adult hippocampal neurogenesis, a process involved in key functions, such as learning, memory, and mood regulation. We addressed the role of thyroid hormone receptor TRα1 in adult hippocampal neurogenesis, using mice harboring a TRα1 null allele (TRα1(-/-)), overexpressing TRα1 6-fold (TRα2(-/-)), and a mutant TRα1 (TRα1(+/m)) with a 10-fold lower affinity to the ligand. While hippocampal progenitor proliferation was unaltered, TRα1(-/-) mice exhibited a significant increase in doublecortin-positive immature neurons and increased survival of bromodeoxyuridine-positive (BrdU(+)) progenitors as compared to wild-type controls. In contrast, the TRα1(+/m) and the TRα2(-/-) mice, where the overexpressed TRα1 acts as an aporeceptor, showed a significant decline in surviving BrdU(+) progenitors. TRα1(-/-) and TRα2(-/-) mice showed opposing effects on neurogenic markers like polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecule and stathmin. The decreased progenitor survival in the TRα2(-/-) and TRα1(+/m) mice could be rescued by thyroid hormone treatment, as was the decline in neuronal differentiation seen in the TRα1(+/m) mice. These mice also exhibited a decrease in NeuroD(+) cell numbers in the dentate gyrus, suggesting an effect on early postmitotic progenitors. Our results provide the first evidence of a role for unliganded TRα1 in modulating the deleterious effects of hypothyroidism on adult hippocampal neurogenesis.

A high-resolution large area serotonin map of a live rat brain section.

We employ three-photon microscopy to produce a high-resolution map of serotonin autofluorescence in a rat midbrain section (covering more than half of the brain), to quantitatively characterize serotonin distribution and release in different areas of a live brain slice. The map consists of a tiling of approximately 160 contiguous optical images (covering an area of approximately 27 mm with sub-mum resolution in 20 min), and is recorded before and after inducing depolarization. We observe that the total serotonin exocytosed from the somata in the raphe is quantitatively comparable with regions containing a high density of serotonergic processes. Our results demonstrate that high-resolution, wide-area, dynamic neurotransmitter mapping is now possible.

Several posttranslational modifications act in concert to regulate gephyrin scaffolding and GABAergic transmission.

GABAA receptors (GABAARs) mediate the majority of fast inhibitory neurotransmission in the brain via synergistic association with the postsynaptic scaffolding protein gephyrin and its interaction partners. However, unlike their counterparts at glutamatergic synapses, gephyrin and its binding partners lack canonical protein interaction motifs; hence, the molecular basis for gephyrin scaffolding has remained unclear. In this study, we identify and characterize two new posttranslational modifications of gephyrin, SUMOylation and acetylation. We demonstrate that crosstalk between SUMOylation, acetylation and phosphorylation pathways regulates gephyrin scaffolding. Pharmacological intervention of SUMO pathway or transgenic expression of SUMOylation-deficient gephyrin variants rescued gephyrin clustering in CA1 or neocortical neurons of Gabra2-null mice, which otherwise lack gephyrin clusters, indicating that gephyrin SUMO modification is an essential determinant for scaffolding at GABAergic synapses. Together, our results demonstrate that concerted modifications on a protein scaffold by evolutionarily conserved yet functionally diverse signalling pathways facilitate GABAergic transmission.

Loss of thyroid hormone receptor ß is associated with increased progenitor proliferation and NeuroD positive cell number in the adult hippocampus.

Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is modulated by perturbations in thyroid hormone status; however the role of specific thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) in this process is not completely understood. We show here that loss of the TRß gene results in a significant increase in the proliferation of adult hippocampal progenitors, without any change in immature neuron number or in the neuronal and glial differentiation of progenitors. Using the mitotic marker 5'-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) or the endogenous cell cycle marker, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), we find a significant increase in the number of BrdU- and PCNA-immunopositive cells within the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus subfield in TRß-/- mice. Further, we find that TRß-/- mice exhibit a significant increase in the numbers of NeuroD-positive cells within the SGZ, suggesting that the increased numbers of proliferating progenitors translate into enhanced numbers of neuroblasts. Interestingly, the number of BrdU-positive cells that persist 4 weeks post-BrdU injection is unaltered in TRß-/- mice, indicating that the enhanced proliferation does not result in increased hippocampal neurogenesis. This is also supported by the evidence of no change in the numbers of cells expressing markers of immature neurons such as doublecortin or polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecule. Furthermore, no change is observed in the neuronal or glial differentiation of BrdU-positive cells in the TRß-/- mice. Taken together, our results provide novel evidence for a role of TRß in modulating hippocampal progenitor cell division, and implicate this receptor in the effects of thyroid hormone on adult hippocampal neurogenesis.