Incidence of Diabetic Ketoacidosis of New-Onset Type 1 Diabetes in Children and Adolescents in Different Countries Correlates with Human Development Index (HDI): An Updated Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is usually diagnosed by insulin deficiency at a young age. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) represents a severe complication occurring before the first diagnosis of T1DM. Actually, the data situation is still unsettled in assessing the current state of diagnosis. This study summarizes the latest rates of DKA of new-onset T1DM in children and adolescents in different countries available over the last five years. Different T1DM-related, geographical and socioeconomic moderators are suitable to explain the heterogeneity of observed DKA rates. A systematic literature search using PubMed, EMBASE*, and MedLine* (*via OVID) was conducted to extract worldwide DKA rates covering publications from April 2011 to May 2016. We define DKA consistently by pH<7.3 or bicarbonate<15 mmol/l. We identified 34 suitable studies covering DKA rates in 25 countries. Overall DKA rates were compared to earlier studies to identify a temporal trend. We further applied a random effects meta-analysis and used meta-regression to reveal moderators of DKA rate heterogeneity. This review evaluating 34 studies includes 47 000 children and adolescents in total. DKA rates varied from 14.7% (Denmark) to 79.8% (Saudi Arabia). DKA rates are still high but a decline can also be recognized. The meta-regression shows that latitude (p<0.000) and human development index (HDI) (p<0.000) are moderators of DKA rates. The frequency of DKA rates occurrence varies widely for different countries. Both latitude and HDI partially explain the observed heterogeneity, while other moderators such as density of physicians showed no obvious correlation.

Ketoacidosis at onset of type 1 diabetes in children up to 14 years of age and the changes over a period of 18 years in Saxony, Eastern-Germany: A population based register study.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the incidence trends of type 1 diabetes diagnosed with ketoacidosis in Saxony, Germany from 1999 to 2016. METHODS: The population based Childhood Diabetes Registry of Saxony comprising valid data for all children aged 0-14 years diagnosed with type 1 diabetes from1999 to 2016 were used for the analyses. Direct age-standardized incidence rates were calculated and the effects of age, sex, calendar year, home districts and family history of any types of diabetes on the incidence were modelled using Poisson regression. Trend analyses for standard rate ratios of children with moderate and severe diabetic ketoacidosis versus children with type 1 diabetes with non-diabetic ketoacidosis were performed using join point regression. RESULTS: The rate of ketoacidosis at the time of the type 1 diabetes diagnosis was high with 35.2% during the entire observation period in Saxony. The Poisson regression analysis indicated a statistically significant increased occurrence of diabetic ketoacidosis for younger age-groups, but no statistically significant differences between boys and girls. The join point trend analyses show that the proportion of severe and moderate ketoacidosis is increasing disproportionally to the increase in incidence of type 1 diabetes over the years. CONCLUSION: Due to the observed increasing incidence of diabetes as well of diabetic ketoacidosis, an educational prevention campaign is needed in Saxony as soon as possible to aid pediatricians, general physicians as well as general public to identify the early signs of type 1 diabetes.