Emergency colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: Striking the right balance.

The number of reported cases of Clostridium difficile (CD) infections has increased markedly worldwide. CD causes a spectrum of clinical syndromes, ranging from mild diarrhea to a very severe illness in the form of pseudomembranous colitis (PMC), toxic megacolon, leading to colonic perforation, peritonitis, and even death. In today's practice, toxic megacolon is more often caused by pseudomembranous colitis than ulcerative colitis. There is urgent need to establish clear guidelines about how and when to refer patients with fulminant CD colitis to surgeons. Furthermore, there is no strict protocol for the timing of surgical intervention. The aim of this review is to review the available evidence about the criteria for referral to surgeons and timing for surgery. Medline search was carried out for articles published on fulminant CD colitis with emergency colectomy from 1966 to 2010. There were no prospective randomized trails. All retrospective cohort and case control studies were included. We excluded case reports, letters, and studies with less than five patients. Our search showed that patients with confirmed or suspected CD who failed to respond to maximum medical therapy and develop three of the following should be referral for surgical assessment: abdominal pain, abdominal distension, localized tenderness, pyrexia >38°C, and tachycardia >100 beats per minute. In addition to the above, if the patient is above 65 years old and develops four of the following, they should be considered for an emergency colectomy: WBC >16 × 109/l, lactate >2.2 mmol/l, albumin <30 g/l, blood pressure <90 mm Hg, CT/endoscopy evidence of severe colitis in spite of maximum anti-clostridial therapy. Colectomy still carries a high mortality rate; however, timely surgical intervention in fulminant CD colitis (FCDC) prevents many deaths in selected cases. In the absence of published prospective multicenter trial, we suggest that our criteria may enhance early diagnosis and consideration of early referral for surgery. Ultimately, this may reduce the significant morbidity and mortality associated with FCDC.

The safety and effectiveness of statins as treatment for HIV-dyslipidemia: the evidence so far and the future challenges.

INTRODUCTION: Statin therapy is widely used across the globe for the treatment and prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is well established that statin therapy is associated with significant decrease in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and plasma cholesterol levels. HIV-dyslipidemia is a common problem with extensive use of combination antiretroviral therapy (CART), and is associated with an increase in incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD), resulting in hospital admission and surgery throughout the western healthcare systems. AREAS COVERED: This review describes the effectiveness and safety of statins in the treatment of HIV-dyslipidemia. Medline was searched for different statins as treatment for HIV-dyslipidemia. EXPERT OPINION: Dyslipidemia in patients with HIV is different from the normal population, due to the fact that HIV treatment may not only cause dyslipidemia, but may also interact with lipid lowering medication. Statin-unresponsive HIV-dyslipidemia can be treated with the addition of ezetimibe, fenofibrate, fish oil and niacin. Current guidelines recommend the use of pravastatin and atorvastatin as first-line therapy, whereas European guidelines include rosuvastatin. There is an urgent need to confirm whether the use of statins in HIV-dyslipidemia is associated with an increase in the incidence of diabetes; this is significant because HIV patients are known to be insulin-resistant. HIV is also associated with Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD), a condition known to be associated with insulin resistance. Further clinical trials are urgently needed to assess the impact of statins on CVD in HIV patients, and future challenges for researchers in this area are enormous.

Statins as potential treatment for cholesterol gallstones: an attempt to understand the underlying mechanism of actions.

INTRODUCTION: Statin therapy is widely used across the globe for the treatment and prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD). It is well established that statin therapy is associated with significant decreases in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and plasma cholesterol levels. Cholesterol gallstones are a common problem, resulting in hospital admission and surgery, throughout western healthcare systems. AREAS COVERED: This review describes the mechanisms, and addresses the potential, for statins to be used as a treatment for gallstones. Medline was searched for the risk factors and treatment of cholesterol gallstones. EXPERT OPINION: Obesity, metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), insulin resistance and high-fat diets (unsaturated fats) rich in cholesterol are all associated risk factors for cholesterol gallstones. In view of the high prevalence of cholesterol gallstones, there is an urgent need to understand whether pharmacological therapies can be harnessed for the treatment of cholesterol gallstones. Gallstones are shown to be associated with an increased risk, not only of mortality, but also of CVD. Statins, widely used in prevention of CVD and hypercholesteremia, have been shown to dissolve cholesterol gallstones in animal models and human studies, highlighting the potential for a pharmacological therapy for gallstones. More studies are required to understand the role of statins in the treatment of gallstones and for comparison with current treatment strategies.