Development of a TB vaccine trial site in Africa and lessons from the Ebola experience.

Tuberculosis is the deadliest infection of our time. In contrast, about 11,000 people died of Ebola between 2014 and 2016. Despite this manifest difference in mortality, there is now a vaccine licensed in the United States and by the European Medicines Agency, with up to 100% efficacy against Ebola. The developments that led to the trialing of the Ebola vaccine were historic and unprecedented. The single licensed TB vaccine (BCG) has limited efficacy. There is a dire need for a more efficacious TB vaccine. To deploy such vaccines, trials are needed in sites that combine high disease incidence and research infrastructure. We describe our twelve-year experience building a TB vaccine trial site in contrast to the process in the recent Ebola outbreak. There are additional differences. Relative to the Ebola pipeline, TB vaccines have fewer trials and a paucity of government and industry led trials. While pathogens have varying levels of difficulty in the development of new vaccine candidates, there yet appears to be greater interest in funding and coordinating Ebola interventions. TB is a global threat that requires similar concerted effort for elimination.

Comparison of haematology and biochemistry parameters in healthy South African infants with laboratory reference intervals.

OBJECTIVE: Paediatric laboratory reference intervals used in Africa and Asia may be derived from historical intervals of predominantly Caucasian infants in Europe or North America. These intervals may therefore not be compatible with the range of normality for developing country populations. We aimed to compare haematology and biochemistry parameters in healthy South African infants with local laboratory reference intervals. METHODS: We compared the baseline haematology and biochemistry results of 634 (316 male and 318 female) HIV-unexposed infants, aged 3-6 months, living in a rural area of the Western Cape Province, South Africa, against laboratory reference intervals supplied by the South African National Health Laboratory Services (NHLS). We calculated the percentage of observed values out of bound (in terms of lower and upper limits) compared to laboratory reference intervals. RESULTS: Of the 634 healthy infants screened, 316 (49.84%) were male and 318 (50.16%) female. A majority (91.05%) had platelet counts above the laboratory reference interval upper limit (350 × 109 cells/l), while over half, 54.85% and 56.98% had mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) values below the lower limits of 77.0-105.0 fl and 26.0-34.0 pg, respectively. A small proportion were outside the reference limits for haematocrit, namely 15.71% below and 7.14% above the normal limits of 0.31-0.38 l/l. For male and female infants, 33.65% and 18.04% of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) values and 7.01% and 14.56% of alanine transaminase (ALT) values were above the upper limits, respectively. For male infants, 10.83% of gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) values, and for female infants, 31.11% of GGT values were below the lower limits of 12 U/l for males and 15 U/l for females. We observed no significant deviations (>10% out of bound) from NHLS reference intervals in the remaining haematology and biochemistry parameters measured. CONCLUSIONS: Haematology and biochemistry parameters in apparently healthy South African infants deviate frequently from national laboratory reference intervals, including abnormalities consistent with subclinical hypochromic microcytic anaemia. It is important that clinical laboratory reference intervals for children are derived locally, rather than being adopted from Caucasian norms in developed countries, because clinical trials of vaccines, drugs and diagnostics are increasingly conducted in sub-Saharan Africa.

Comparison of mantoux skin test with three generations of a whole blood IFN-gamma assay for tuberculosis infection.

SETTING: A rural town in South Africa. OBJECTIVE: To compare the performance of Quanti-FERON assays with the tuberculin skin test (TST) for identifying latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in a high TB burden community. DESIGN: In a cross-sectional study in healthy adults, we applied the TST and took blood for the three generations of QuantiFERON assays. RESULTS: Of 358 participants whose results were analysed, 291 (81%) had a TST result of > or = 10 mm induration, and 187 (52%) > or = 15 mm. QuantiFERON-TB was positive in 215 (60%), QuantiFERON-TB Gold in 137 (38%), and QuantiFERON-TB Gold (In-Tube method) in 201 (56%). There was poor agreement between TST and QuantiFERON tests, and between the different generations of QuantiFERON tests (kappa = 0.12-0.50). Of the subset with TST indurations > or = 15 mm, 30-56% had negative QuantiFERON tests. However, positive Quanti-FERON tests were associated with males, who have a higher incidence of TB in this area. CONCLUSION: We showed poor agreement between TST and the different QuantiFERON tests in diagnosing LTBI. The surprising discordance between the Quanti-FERON TB Gold and QuantiFERON TB Gold (In-Tube method) tests needs to be investigated further.

Predictive factors for latent tuberculosis infection among adolescents in a high-burden area in South Africa.

SETTING: A high tuberculosis (TB) burden area in South Africa (notification rate for all TB cases 1400 per 100 000 population). OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of and predictive factors associated with latent TB infection in adolescents. DESIGN: Adolescents aged 12-18 years were recruited from high schools, clinical and demographic data were collected, and a tuberculin skin test (TST) and a QuantiFERON®-TB Gold In-Tube (QFT) assay performed. RESULTS: A total of 6363 (58.2%) of 10 942 adolescents at the schools were enrolled. After exclusions, of 5244 participants, 55.2% (95%CI 53.8-56.5) had TST ≥ 5 mm, while 50.9% (49.5-52.2) were QFT-positive. On multivariate analysis, Black/mixed race racial groups, male sex, older age, household TB contact, low income and low education level were predictive factors for both TST- and QFT-positive results. CONCLUSION: About half of the adolescents were found to be latently infected with TB in a high TB burden area with demographic and poverty-related socio-economic factors predicting the risk of TB infection. Adolescents from deprived communities should be considered an important target group for educational interventions by TB control programmes in high-burden settings.

Induced sputum or gastric lavage for community-based diagnosis of childhood pulmonary tuberculosis?

OBJECTIVES: To compare the diagnostic yield of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from induced sputum (IS) and gastric lavage (GL) among children in a community setting. METHODS: Specimen-collection methods for bacteriological confirmation of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) were compared during a tuberculosis vaccine trial near Cape Town, South Africa (2001-2006). Children with a tuberculosis contact or compatible symptoms were investigated for suspected PTB. Diagnostic yields from 764 paired IS and GL specimens were compared in 191 culture-confirmed cases. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The crude yield of M tuberculosis was 10.4%, n = 108 by IS (5.8%) and n = 127 by GL (6.8%), from a total of 194 cases, of which three had incomplete IS/GL specimen pairs. Agreement between IS and GL was poor (kappa = 0.31). The comparative yield of a single IS sample (38%) was equivalent to a single GL sample (42%), with a difference in yield of -4% (95% CI -15% to +7%). The combined yield of same-day IS and GL specimens (67%) was equivalent to two consecutive GL specimens (66%), with a difference in yield of 1% (95% CI -9% to 11%), but significantly greater than two consecutive IS specimens (55%), with a difference in yield of 12% (95% CI 2% to 21%). The adjusted odds of a M tuberculosis culture were increased by a positive tuberculin skin test or chest radiograph compatible with PTB. CONCLUSIONS: In this community setting, the diagnostic yield of a single IS sample was equivalent to that of a single GL sample. The optimal diagnostic yield may be obtained from paired IS and GL specimens taken on a single day or two GL specimens taken on consecutive days.

Are adolescents ready for tuberculosis vaccine trials?

Tuberculosis (TB) vaccine trials are planned in adolescents in a high tuberculosis burden rural area near Cape Town, South Africa. To determine the knowledge and attitudes of adolescents about tuberculosis, vaccines and vaccine trials, a representative sample of adolescent learners was chosen from high schools in the trial area. A questionnaire was administered and focus group discussions held with the group and a sample of their parents. The questionnaire response rate was 65%. Knowledge of tuberculosis was fair 63.7% but knowledge of vaccines poor 41.9% based on a TB and vaccine knowledge score, respectively. Willingness to participate in vaccine trials will be influenced by the type of procedures involved (60% willing to answer questions, 43% willing to be examined, 32% willing to undergo skin tests and 39% willing to undergo blood draw). In general, better knowledge was statistically associated with greater willingness to participate in study procedures except for the blood draw. The focus group discussions showed that adolescents and their parents were positive about participating in vaccine trials but concerns about safety and the provision of adequate information should be considered when planning TB vaccine trials. This study suggests that TB vaccine trials would be acceptable amongst adolescents in this community with certain provisos.