CRISPR screens decode cancer cell pathways that trigger γδ T cell detection.

γδ T cells are potent anticancer effectors with the potential to target tumours broadly, independent of patient-specific neoantigens or human leukocyte antigen background1-5. γδ T cells can sense conserved cell stress signals prevalent in transformed cells2,3, although the mechanisms behind the targeting of stressed target cells remain poorly characterized. Vγ9Vδ2 T cells-the most abundant subset of human γδ T cells4-recognize a protein complex containing butyrophilin 2A1 (BTN2A1) and BTN3A1 (refs. 6-8), a widely expressed cell surface protein that is activated by phosphoantigens abundantly produced by tumour cells. Here we combined genome-wide CRISPR screens in target cancer cells to identify pathways that regulate γδ T cell killing and BTN3A cell surface expression. The screens showed previously unappreciated multilayered regulation of BTN3A abundance on the cell surface and triggering of γδ T cells through transcription, post-translational modifications and membrane trafficking. In addition, diverse genetic perturbations and inhibitors disrupting metabolic pathways in the cancer cells, particularly ATP-producing processes, were found to alter BTN3A levels. This induction of both BTN3A and BTN2A1 during metabolic crises is dependent on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Finally, small-molecule activation of AMPK in a cell line model and in patient-derived tumour organoids led to increased expression of the BTN2A1-BTN3A complex and increased Vγ9Vδ2 T cell receptor-mediated killing. This AMPK-dependent mechanism of metabolic stress-induced ligand upregulation deepens our understanding of γδ T cell stress surveillance and suggests new avenues available to enhance γδ T cell anticancer activity.

Connectome-based modelling of neurodegenerative diseases: towards precision medicine and mechanistic insight.

Neurodegenerative diseases are the most common cause of dementia. Although their underlying molecular pathologies have been identified, there is substantial heterogeneity in the patterns of progressive brain alterations across and within these diseases. Recent advances in neuroimaging methods have revealed that pathological proteins accumulate along specific macroscale brain networks, implicating the network architecture of the brain in the system-level pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the extent to which 'network-based neurodegeneration' applies across the wide range of neurodegenerative disorders remains unclear. Here, we discuss the state-of-the-art of neuroimaging-based connectomics for the mapping and prediction of neurodegenerative processes. We review findings supporting brain networks as passive conduits through which pathological proteins spread. As an alternative view, we also discuss complementary work suggesting that network alterations actively modulate the spreading of pathological proteins between connected brain regions. We conclude this Perspective by proposing an integrative framework in which connectome-based models can be advanced along three dimensions of innovation: incorporating parameters that modulate propagation behaviour on the basis of measurable biological features; building patient-tailored models that use individual-level information and allowing model parameters to interact dynamically over time. We discuss promises and pitfalls of these strategies for improving disease insights and moving towards precision medicine.

Crucial role and mechanism of transcription-coupled DNA repair in bacteria.

Transcription-coupled DNA repair (TCR) is presumed to be a minor sub-pathway of nucleotide excision repair (NER) in bacteria. Global genomic repair is thought to perform the bulk of repair independently of transcription. TCR is also believed to be mediated exclusively by Mfd-a DNA translocase of a marginal NER phenotype1-3. Here we combined in cellulo cross-linking mass spectrometry with structural, biochemical and genetic approaches to map the interactions within the TCR complex (TCRC) and to determine the actual sequence of events that leads to NER in vivo. We show that RNA polymerase (RNAP) serves as the primary sensor of DNA damage and acts as a platform for the recruitment of NER enzymes. UvrA and UvrD associate with RNAP continuously, forming a surveillance pre-TCRC. In response to DNA damage, pre-TCRC recruits a second UvrD monomer to form a helicase-competent UvrD dimer that promotes backtracking of the TCRC. The weakening of UvrD-RNAP interactions renders cells sensitive to genotoxic stress. TCRC then recruits a second UvrA molecule and UvrB to initiate the repair process. Contrary to the conventional view, we show that TCR accounts for the vast majority of chromosomal repair events; that is, TCR thoroughly dominates over global genomic repair. We also show that TCR is largely independent of Mfd. We propose that Mfd has an indirect role in this process: it participates in removing obstructive RNAPs in front of TCRCs and also in recovering TCRCs from backtracking after repair has been completed.

Quantized current steps due to the a.c. coherent quantum phase-slip effect.

The a.c. Josephson effect predicted in 19621 and observed experimentally in 19632 as quantized 'voltage steps' (the Shapiro steps) from photon-assisted tunnelling of Cooper pairs is among the most fundamental phenomena of quantum mechanics and is vital for metrological quantum voltage standards. The physically dual effect, the a.c. coherent quantum phase slip (CQPS), photon-assisted tunnelling of magnetic fluxes through a superconducting nanowire, is envisaged to reveal itself as quantized 'current steps'3,4. The basic physical significance of the a.c. CQPS is also complemented by practical importance in future current standards, a missing element for closing the quantum metrology triangle5,6. In 2012, the CQPS was demonstrated as superposition of magnetic flux quanta in superconducting nanowires 7. However, the direct flat current steps in superconductors, the only unavailable basic effect of superconductivity to date, was unattainable due to lack of appropriate materials and challenges in circuit engineering. Here we report the direct observation of the dual Shapiro steps in a superconducting nanowire. The sharp steps are clear up to 26 GHz frequency with current values 8.3 nA and limited by the present set-up bandwidth. The current steps were theoretically predicted in small Josephson junctions 30 years ago5. However, unavoidable broadening in Josephson junctions prevents their direct experimental observation8,9. We solve this problem by placing a thin NbN nanowire in an inductive environment.

Thermal imaging of dust hiding the black hole in NGC 1068.

In the widely accepted 'unified model'1 solution of the classification puzzle of active galactic nuclei, the orientation of a dusty accretion torus around the central black hole dominates their appearance. In 'type-1' systems, the bright nucleus is visible at the centre of a face-on torus. In 'type-2' systems the thick, nearly edge-on torus hides the central engine. Later studies suggested evolutionary effects2 and added dusty clumps and polar winds3 but left the basic picture intact. However, recent high-resolution images4 of the archetypal type-2 galaxy NGC 10685,6, suggested a more radical revision. The images displayed a ring-like emission feature that was proposed to be hot dust surrounding the black hole at the radius where the radiation from the central engine evaporates the dust. That ring is too thin and too far tilted from edge-on to hide the central engine, and ad hoc foreground extinction is needed to explain the type-2 classification. These images quickly generated reinterpretations of the dichotomy between types 1 and 27,8. Here we present new multi-band mid-infrared images of NGC 1068 that detail the dust temperature distribution and reaffirm the original model. Combined with radio data (J.F.G. and C.M.V.I., manuscript in preparation), our maps locate the central engine that is below the previously reported ring and obscured by a thick, nearly edge-on disk, as predicted by the unified model. We also identify emission from polar flows and absorbing dust that is mineralogically distinct from that towards the Milky Way centre.

TrxG and PcG proteins but not methylated histones remain associated with DNA through replication.

Propagation of gene-expression patterns through the cell cycle requires the existence of an epigenetic mark that re-establishes the chromatin architecture of the parental cell in the daughter cells. We devised assays to determine which potential epigenetic marks associate with epigenetic maintenance elements during DNA replication in Drosophila embryos. Histone H3 trimethylated at lysines 4 or 27 is present during transcription but, surprisingly, is replaced by nonmethylated H3 following DNA replication. Methylated H3 is detected on DNA only in nuclei not in S phase. In contrast, the TrxG and PcG proteins Trithorax and Enhancer-of-Zeste, which are H3K4 and H3K27 methylases, and Polycomb continuously associate with their response elements on the newly replicated DNA. We suggest that histone modification enzymes may re-establish the histone code on newly assembled unmethylated histones and thus may act as epigenetic marks.

Deciphering the functional specialization of whole-brain spatiomolecular gradients in the adult brain.

Cortical arealization arises during neurodevelopment from the confluence of molecular gradients representing patterned expression of morphogens and transcription factors. However, whether similar gradients are maintained in the adult brain remains unknown. Here, we uncover three axes of topographic variation in gene expression in the adult human brain that specifically capture previously identified rostral-caudal, dorsal-ventral, and medial-lateral axes of early developmental patterning. The interaction of these spatiomolecular gradients i) accurately reconstructs the position of brain tissue samples, ii) delineates known functional territories, and iii) can model the topographical variation of diverse cortical features. The spatiomolecular gradients are distinct from canonical cortical axes differentiating the primary sensory cortex from the association cortex, but radiate in parallel with the axes traversed by local field potentials along the cortex. We replicate all three molecular gradients in three independent human datasets as well as two nonhuman primate datasets and find that each gradient shows a distinct developmental trajectory across the lifespan. The gradients are composed of several well-known transcription factors (e.g., PAX6 and SIX3), and a small set of genes shared across gradients are strongly enriched for multiple diseases. Together, these results provide insight into the developmental sculpting of functionally distinct brain regions, governed by three robust transcriptomic axes embedded within brain parenchyma.

Are polycomb group bodies gene silencing factories?

Polycomb group (PcG) proteins mediate long-range associations between Hox genes, which correlate with gene repression in vivo. Bantignies et al. (2011) identify a physiological role for the nuclear localization of Hox genes in PcG-mediated gene silencing, strengthening the evidence that nuclear positioning regulates gene expression.

COPI coatomer subunit α-COP interacts with the RNA binding protein Nucleolin via a C-terminal dilysine motif.

The COPI coatomer subunit α-COP has been shown to co-precipitate mRNA in multiple settings, but it was unclear whether the interaction with mRNA was direct or mediated by interaction with an adapter protein. The COPI complex often interacts with proteins via C-terminal dilysine domains. A search for candidate RNA binding proteins with C-terminal dilysine motifs yielded Nucleolin, which terminates in a KKxKxx sequence. This protein was an especially intriguing candidate as it has been identified as an interacting partner for Survival Motor Neuron protein (SMN). Loss of SMN causes the neurodegenerative disease Spinal Muscular Atrophy. We have previously shown that SMN and α-COP interact and co-migrate in axons, and that overexpression of α-COP reduced phenotypic severity in cell culture and animal models of SMA. We show here that in an mRNA independent manner, endogenous Nucleolin co-precipitates endogenous α-COP and ε-COP but not ß-COP which may reflect an interaction with the so-called B-subcomplex rather a complete COPI heptamer. The ability of Nucleolin to bind to α-COP requires the presence of the C-terminal KKxKxx domain of Nucleolin. Furthermore, we have generated a point mutant in the WD40 domain of α-COP which eliminates its ability to co-precipitate Nucleolin but does not interfere with precipitation of partners mediated by non-KKxKxx motifs such as the kainate receptor subunit 2. We propose that via interaction between the C-terminal dilysine motif of Nucleolin and the WD40 domain of α-COP, Nucleolin acts an adaptor to allow α-COP to interact with a population of mRNA.

MicroRNA-155 Plays Selective Cell-Intrinsic Roles in Brain-Infiltrating Immune Cell Populations during Neuroinflammation.

The proinflammatory microRNA-155 (miR-155) is highly expressed in the serum and CNS lesions of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Global knockout (KO) of miR-155 in mice confers resistance to a mouse model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), by reducing the encephalogenic potential of CNS-infiltrating Th17 T cells. However, cell-intrinsic roles for miR-155 during EAE have not been formally determined. In this study, we use single-cell RNA sequencing and cell-specific conditional miR-155 KOs to determine the importance of miR-155 expression in distinct immune cell populations. Time-course single-cell sequencing revealed reductions in T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells (DCs) in global miR-155 KO mice compared with wild-type controls at day 21 after EAE induction. Deletion of miR-155 in T cells, driven by CD4 Cre, significantly reduced disease severity similar to global miR-155 KOs. CD11c Cre-mediated deletion of miR-155 in DCs also resulted in a modest yet significant reduction in the development of EAE, with both T cell- and DC-specific KOs showing a reduction in Th17 T cell infiltration into the CNS. Although miR-155 is highly expressed in infiltrating macrophages during EAE, deletion of miR-155 using LysM Cre did not impact disease severity. Taken together, these data show that although miR-155 is highly expressed in most infiltrating immune cells, miR-155 has distinct roles and requirements depending on the cell type, and we have demonstrated this using the gold standard conditional KO approach. This provides insights into which functionally relevant cell types should be targeted by the next generation of miRNA therapeutics.

A generalizable data-driven model of atrophy heterogeneity and progression in memory clinic settings.

Memory clinic patients are a heterogeneous population representing various aetiologies of pathological ageing. It is not known whether divergent spatiotemporal progression patterns of brain atrophy, as previously described in Alzheimer's disease patients, are prevalent and clinically meaningful in this group of older adults. To uncover distinct atrophy subtypes, we applied the Subtype and Stage Inference (SuStaIn) algorithm to baseline structural MRI data from 813 participants enrolled in the DELCODE cohort (mean ± standard deviation, age = 70.67 ± 6.07 years, 52% females). Participants were cognitively unimpaired (n = 285) or fulfilled diagnostic criteria for subjective cognitive decline (n = 342), mild cognitive impairment (n = 118) or dementia of the Alzheimer's type (n = 68). Atrophy subtypes were compared in baseline demographics, fluid Alzheimer's disease biomarker levels, the Preclinical Alzheimer Cognitive Composite (PACC-5) as well as episodic memory and executive functioning. PACC-5 trajectories over up to 240 weeks were examined. To test whether baseline atrophy subtype and stage predicted clinical trajectories before manifest cognitive impairment, we analysed PACC-5 trajectories and mild cognitive impairment conversion rates of cognitively unimpaired participants and those with subjective cognitive decline. Limbic-predominant and hippocampal-sparing atrophy subtypes were identified. Limbic-predominant atrophy initially affected the medial temporal lobes, followed by further temporal regions and, finally, the remaining cortical regions. At baseline, this subtype was related to older age, more pathological Alzheimer's disease biomarker levels, APOE ε4 carriership and an amnestic cognitive impairment. Hippocampal-sparing atrophy initially occurred outside the temporal lobe, with the medial temporal lobe spared up to advanced atrophy stages. This atrophy pattern also affected individuals with positive Alzheimer's disease biomarkers and was associated with more generalized cognitive impairment. Limbic-predominant atrophy, in all participants and in only unimpaired participants, was linked to more negative longitudinal PACC-5 slopes than observed in participants without or with hippocampal-sparing atrophy and increased the risk of mild cognitive impairment conversion. SuStaIn modelling was repeated in a sample from the Swedish BioFINDER-2 cohort. Highly similar atrophy progression patterns and associated cognitive profiles were identified. Cross-cohort model generalizability, at both the subject and the group level, was excellent, indicating reliable performance in previously unseen data. The proposed model is a promising tool for capturing heterogeneity among older adults at early at-risk states for Alzheimer's disease in applied settings. The implementation of atrophy subtype- and stage-specific end points might increase the statistical power of pharmacological trials targeting early Alzheimer's disease.

Machine behaviour.

Machines powered by artificial intelligence increasingly mediate our social, cultural, economic and political interactions. Understanding the behaviour of artificial intelligence systems is essential to our ability to control their actions, reap their benefits and minimize their harms. Here we argue that this necessitates a broad scientific research agenda to study machine behaviour that incorporates and expands upon the discipline of computer science and includes insights from across the sciences. We first outline a set of questions that are fundamental to this emerging field and then explore the technical, legal and institutional constraints on the study of machine behaviour.

Targeting lipid nanoparticles to the blood-brain barrier to ameliorate acute ischemic stroke.

Effective delivery of mRNA or small molecule drugs to the brain is a significant challenge in developing treatment for acute ischemic stroke (AIS). To address the problem, we have developed targeted nanomedicine to increase drug concentrations in endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) of the injured brain. Inflammation during ischemic stroke causes continuous neuronal death and an increase in the infarct volume. To enable targeted delivery to the inflamed BBB, we conjugated lipid nanocarriers (NCs) with antibodies that bind cell adhesion molecules expressed at the BBB. In the transient middle cerebral artery occlusion mouse model, NCs targeted to vascular cellular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM) achieved the highest level of brain delivery, nearly two orders of magnitude higher than untargeted ones. VCAM-targeted lipid nanoparticles with luciferase-encoding mRNA and Cre-recombinase showed selective expression in the ischemic brain. Anti-inflammatory drugs administered intravenously after ischemic stroke reduced cerebral infarct volume by 62% (interleukin-10 mRNA) or 35% (dexamethasone) only when they were encapsulated in VCAM-targeted NCs. Thus, VCAM-targeted lipid NCs represent a new platform for strongly concentrating drugs within the compromised BBB of penumbra, thereby ameliorating AIS.

CRISPR-Cas9 editing of the arginine-vasopressin V1a receptor produces paradoxical changes in social behavior in Syrian hamsters.

Studies from a variety of species indicate that arginine­vasopressin (AVP) and its V1a receptor (Avpr1a) play a critical role in the regulation of a range of social behaviors by their actions in the social behavior neural network. To further investigate the role of AVPRs in social behavior, we performed CRISPR-Cas9­mediated editing at the Avpr1a gene via pronuclear microinjections in Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus), a species used extensively in behavioral neuroendocrinology because they produce a rich suite of social behaviors. Using this germ-line gene-editing approach, we generated a stable line of hamsters with a frame-shift mutation in the Avpr1a gene resulting in the null expression of functional Avpr1as. Avpr1a knockout (KO) hamsters exhibited a complete lack of Avpr1a-specific autoradiographic binding throughout the brain, behavioral insensitivity to centrally administered AVP, and no pressor response to a peripherally injected Avpr1a-specific agonist, thus confirming the absence of functional Avpr1as in the brain and periphery. Contradictory to expectations, Avpr1a KO hamsters exhibited substantially higher levels of conspecific social communication (i.e., odor-stimulated flank marking) than their wild-type (WT) littermates. Furthermore, sex differences in aggression were absent, as both male and female KOs exhibited more aggression toward same-sex conspecifics than did their WT littermates. Taken together, these data emphasize the importance of comparative studies employing gene-editing approaches and suggest the startling possibility that Avpr1a-specific modulation of the social behavior neural network may be more inhibitory than permissive.

Combination of Physicochemical Tropism and Affinity Moiety Targeting of Lipid Nanoparticles Enhances Organ Targeting.

Two camps have emerged for targeting nanoparticles to specific organs and cell types: affinity moiety targeting and physicochemical tropism. Here we directly compare and combine both using intravenous (IV) lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) designed to target the lungs. We utilized PECAM antibodies as affinity moieties and cationic lipids for physicochemical tropism. These methods yield nearly identical lung uptake, but aPECAM LNPs show higher endothelial specificity. LNPs combining these targeting methods had >2-fold higher lung uptake than either method alone and markedly enhanced epithelial uptake. To determine if lung uptake is because the lungs are the first organ downstream of IV injection, we compared IV vs intra-arterial (IA) injection into the carotid artery, finding that IA combined-targeting LNPs achieve 35% of the injected dose per gram (%ID/g) in the first-pass organ, the brain, among the highest reported. Thus, combining the affinity moiety and physicochemical strategies provides benefits that neither targeting method achieves alone.

Inhibition of nucleotide biosynthesis disrupts lipid accumulation and adipogenesis.

Energy balance and nutrient availability are key determinants of cellular decisions to remain quiescent, proliferate, or differentiate into a mature cell. After assessing its environmental state, the cell must rewire its metabolism to support distinct cellular outcomes. Mechanistically, how metabolites regulate cell fate decisions is poorly understood. We used adipogenesis as our model system to ascertain the role of metabolism in differentiation. We isolated adipose tissue stromal vascular fraction cells and profiled metabolites before and after adipogenic differentiation to identify metabolic signatures associated with these distinct cellular states. We found that differentiation alters nucleotide accumulation. Furthermore, inhibition of nucleotide biosynthesis prevented lipid storage within adipocytes and downregulated the expression of lipogenic factors. In contrast to proliferating cells, in which mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 is activated by purine accumulation, mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 signaling was unaffected by purine levels in differentiating adipocytes. Rather, our data indicated that purines regulate transcriptional activators of adipogenesis, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α, to promote differentiation. Although de novo nucleotide biosynthesis has mainly been studied in proliferation, our study points to its requirement in adipocyte differentiation.

AdipoRon reduces TGFß1-mediated collagen deposition in vitro and alleviates knee stiffness in vivo.

Arthrofibrosis, which causes joint motion restrictions, is a common complication following total knee arthroplasty (TKA). Key features associated with arthrofibrosis include myofibroblast activation, knee stiffness, and excessive scar tissue formation. We previously demonstrated that adiponectin levels are suppressed within the knee tissues of patients affected by arthrofibrosis and showed that AdipoRon, an adiponectin receptor agonist, exhibited anti-fibrotic properties in human mesenchymal stem cells. In this study, the therapeutic potential of AdipoRon was evaluated on TGFß1-mediated myofibroblast differentiation of primary human knee fibroblasts and in a mouse model of knee stiffness. Picrosirius red staining revealed that AdipoRon reduced TGFß1-induced collagen deposition in primary knee fibroblasts derived from patients undergoing primary TKA and revision TKA for arthrofibrosis. AdipoRon also reduced mRNA and protein levels of ACTA2, a key myofibroblast marker. RNA-seq analysis corroborated the anti-myofibrogenic effects of AdipoRon. In our knee stiffness mouse model, 6 weeks of knee immobilization, to induce a knee contracture, in conjunction with daily vehicle (DMSO) or AdipoRon (1, 5, and 25 mg/kg) via intraperitoneal injections were well tolerated based on animal behavior and weight measurements. Biomechanical testing demonstrated that passive extension angles (PEAs) of experimental knees were similar between vehicle and AdipoRon treatment groups in mice evaluated immediately following immobilization. Interestingly, relative to vehicle-treated mice, 5 mg/kg AdipoRon therapy improved the PEA of the experimental knees in mice that underwent 4 weeks of knee remobilization following the immobilization and therapy. Together, these studies revealed that AdipoRon may be an effective therapeutic modality for arthrofibrosis.

A General Strategy for N-(Hetero)arylpiperidine Synthesis Using Zincke Imine Intermediates.

Methods to synthesize diverse collections of substituted piperidines are valuable due to the prevalence of this heterocycle in pharmaceutical compounds. Here, we present a general strategy to access N-(hetero)arylpiperidines using a pyridine ring-opening and ring-closing approach via Zincke imine intermediates. This process generates pyridinium salts from a wide variety of substituted pyridines and (heteroaryl)anilines; hydrogenation reactions and nucleophilic additions then access the N-(hetero)arylpiperidine derivatives. We successfully applied high-throughput experimentation (HTE) using pharmaceutically relevant pyridines and (heteroaryl)anilines as inputs and developed a one-pot process using anilines as nucleophiles in the pyridinium salt-forming processes. This strategy is viable for generating piperidine libraries and applications such as the convergent coupling of complex fragments.

Neuroinflammatory gene expression profiles of reactive glia in the substantia nigra suggest a multidimensional immune response to alpha synuclein inclusions.

Parkinson's disease (PD) pathology is characterized by alpha-synuclein (α-syn) aggregates, degeneration of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc), and neuroinflammation. The presence of reactive glia correlates with deposition of pathological α-syn in early-stage PD. Thus, understanding the neuroinflammatory response of microglia and astrocytes to synucleinopathy may identify therapeutic targets. Here we characterized the neuroinflammatory gene expression profile of reactive microglia and astrocytes in the SNpc during early synucleinopathy in the rat α-syn pre-formed fibril (PFF) model. Rats received intrastriatal injection of α-syn PFFs and expression of immune genes was quantified with droplet digital PCR (ddPCR), after which fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) was used to localize gene expression to microglia or astrocytes in the SNpc. Genes previously associated with reactive microglia (Cd74, C1qa, Stat1, Axl, Casp1, Il18, Lyz2) and reactive astrocytes (C3, Gbp2, Serping1) were significantly upregulated in the SN of PFF injected rats. Localization of gene expression to SNpc microglia near α-syn aggregates identified a unique α-syn aggregate microglial gene expression profile characterized by upregulation of Cd74, Cxcl10, Rt-1a2, Grn, Csf1r, Tyrobp, C3, C1qa, Serping1 and Fcer1g. Importantly, significant microglial upregulation of Cd74 and C3 were only observed following injection of α-syn PFFs, not α-syn monomer, confirming specificity to α-syn aggregation. Serping1 expression also localized to astrocytes in the SNpc. Interestingly, C3 expression in the SNpc localized to microglia at 2- and 4-months post-PFF, but to astrocytes at 6-months post-PFF. We also observed expression of Rt1-a2 and Cxcl10 in SNpc dopamine neurons. Cumulatively our results identify a dynamic, yet reproducible gene expression profile of reactive microglia and astrocytes associated with early synucleinopathy in the rat SNpc.

Language matters for biodiversity.

Language is central to the way people learn about the natural world. A salient concern of the biodiversity conservation arena has been to understand how language can be employed by scientists to communicate knowledge to nonexpert audiences and build ecological literacy. The use of analogy and narrative by scientists are prominent techniques. In this article, we consider how these two modes of language-based reasoning extend into ordinary conversational language use by the public, specifically when articulating everyday understanding and experiences of biodiversity. Drawing on a process of public engagement in a UK woodland environment, a typological framework based on principles of analogical and narrative reasoning is developed to characterize the precise character of processes of everyday biodiversity sense making. The implications of the framework are discussed in the context of future biodiversity research, particularly its participatory and educational dimensions.