NF-kappaB activation in hypothalamic pro-opiomelanocortin neurons is essential in illness- and leptin-induced anorexia.

Anorexia and weight loss are prevalent in infectious diseases. To investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying these phenomena, we established animal models of infection-associated anorexia by administrating bacterial and viral products, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and human immunodeficiency virus-1 transactivator protein (Tat). In these models, we found that the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), a pivotal transcription factor for inflammation-related proteins, was activated in the hypothalamus. In parallel, administration of LPS and Tat increased hypothalamic pro-inflammatory cytokine production, which was abrogated by inhibition of hypothalamic NF-kappaB. In vitro, NF-kappaB activation directly stimulated the transcriptional activity of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), a precursor of anorexigenic melanocortin, and mediated the stimulatory effects of LPS, Tat, and pro-inflammatory cytokines on POMC transcription, implying the involvement of NF-kappaB in controlling feeding behavior. Consistently, hypothalamic injection of LPS and Tat caused a significant reduction in food intake and body weight, which was prevented by blockade of NF-kappaB and melanocortin. Furthermore, disruption of I kappaB kinase-beta, an upstream kinase of NF-kappaB, in POMC neurons attenuated LPS- and Tat-induced anorexia. These findings suggest that infection-associated anorexia and weight loss are mediated via NF-kappaB activation in hypothalamic POMC neurons. In addition, hypothalamic NF-kappaB was activated by leptin, an important anorexigenic hormone, and mediates leptin-stimulated POMC transcription, indicating that hypothalamic NF-kappaB also serves as a downstream signaling pathway of leptin.

Anti-obesity effects of alpha-lipoic acid mediated by suppression of hypothalamic AMP-activated protein kinase.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) functions as a fuel sensor in the cell and is activated when cellular energy is depleted. Here we report that alpha-lipoic acid (alpha-LA), a cofactor of mitochondrial enzymes, decreases hypothalamic AMPK activity and causes profound weight loss in rodents by reducing food intake and enhancing energy expenditure. Activation of hypothalamic AMPK reverses the effects of alpha-LA on food intake and energy expenditure. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of glucose decreases hypothalamic AMPK activity, whereas inhibition of intracellular glucose utilization through the administration of 2-deoxyglucose increases hypothalamic AMPK activity and food intake. The 2-deoxyglucose-induced hyperphagia is reversed by inhibiting hypothalamic AMPK. Our findings indicate that hypothalamic AMPK is important in the central regulation of food intake and energy expenditure and that alpha-LA exerts anti-obesity effects by suppressing hypothalamic AMPK activity.

Role of hypothalamic Foxo1 in the regulation of food intake and energy homeostasis.

Insulin signaling in the hypothalamus plays a role in maintaining body weight. Studies suggest that the forkhead transcription factor Foxo1 is an important mediator of insulin signaling in peripheral tissues. Here we demonstrate that in normal mice, hypothalamic Foxo1 expression is reduced by the anorexigenic hormones insulin and leptin. These hormones' effects on feeding are inhibited when hypothalamic Foxo1 is activated, establishing a new signaling pathway through which insulin and leptin regulate food intake in hypothalamic neurons. Moreover, activation of Foxo1 in the hypothalamus increases food intake and body weight, whereas inhibition of Foxo1 decreases both. Foxo1 stimulates the transcription of the orexigenic neuropeptide Y and Agouti-related protein through the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway, but suppresses the transcription of anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin by antagonizing the activity of signal transducer-activated transcript-3 (STAT3). Our data suggest that hypothalamic Foxo1 is an important regulator of food intake and energy balance.

Enhanced hypothalamic AMP-activated protein kinase activity contributes to hyperphagia in diabetic rats.

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) acts as a cellular energy sensor, being activated during states of low energy charge. Hypothalamic AMPK activity is altered by hormonal and metabolic signals and mediates the feeding response. To determine the effect of diabetes on hypothalamic AMPK activity, we assayed this activity in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. Compared with control rats, STZ-induced diabetic rats had significant hyperphagia and weight loss. Hypothalamic AMPK phosphorylation and alpha2-AMPK activity were higher and acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity was lower in diabetic rats than in control rats. Chronic insulin treatment or suppression of hypothalamic AMPK activity completely prevented diabetes-induced changes in food intake as well as in hypothalamic AMPK activity and mRNA expression of neuropeptide Y and proopiomelanocortin. Plasma leptin and insulin levels were profoundly decreased in diabetic rats. Intracerebroventricular administration of leptin and insulin reduced hyperphagia and the enhanced hypothalamic AMPK activity in diabetic rats. These data suggest that leptin and insulin deficiencies in diabetes lead to increased hypothalamic AMPK activity, which contributes to the development of diabetic hyperphagia.

The mitogenic and antiapoptotic actions of ghrelin in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

Ghrelin, a stomach-derived hormone, induces adiposity when administered to rodents. Because ghrelin receptor is abundantly expressed in adipose tissue, we investigated the role of ghrelin in adipocyte biology. We observed ghrelin receptor expression in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and adipocytes. Treatment of preadipocytes with ghrelin induced cellular proliferation and differentiation to mature adipocytes, as well as basal and insulin-stimulated glucose transport, but it inhibited adipocyte apoptosis induced by serum deprivation. Exposure of 3T3-L1 cells to ghrelin caused a rapid activation of MAPKs, especially ERK1/2. Chemical inhibition of MAPK blocked the mitogenic and antiapoptotic effects of ghrelin. Ghrelin also stimulated the insulin receptor substrate-associated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and adipocytes, whereas inhibition of this pathway blocked the effects of ghrelin on cell proliferation, antiapoptosis and glucose uptake. These findings suggest that the direct effects of ghrelin on proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis in adipocytes may play a role in regulating fat cell number. These effects may be mediated via activation of the MAPK and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathways.

A new anti-inflammatory agent KL-1037 represses proinflammatory cytokine and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) gene expression in activated microglia.

Excessive proinflammatory cytokine and NO production by activated microglia play a role in neurodegenerative disorders. In this study, we found that a new compound KL-1037 suppressed LPS-induced NO release/inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in BV2 mouse microglial cells. In addition, KL-1037 prominently diminished LPS-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta and IL-6, while it increased anti-inflammatory IL-10 and TGF-beta 1 production. By RNase protection assay and RT-PCR, we showed that KL-1037 regulated iNOS and cytokines at transcriptional or post-transcriptional level. Further analysis of molecular mechanisms revealed that KL-1037 prominently increased intracellular cAMP levels and potentiated LPS-induced pCREB expression. However, LPS-induced MAP kinase or NF-kappa B activities were slightly or little changed by KL-1037. Treatment with cAMP antagonist or IL-10 neutralizing antibody completely reversed upregulation of IL-10 and partially repression of TNF-alpha or NO induced by KL-1037. These data suggest that microglial inactivation by KL-1037 is at least in part due to activation of PKA pathway and/or upregulation of IL-10. Thus, repressing proinflammatory cytokines and iNOS gene expression in activated microglia by KL-1037 may provide potential therapeutic strategies for various neurodegenerative diseases including ischemic cerebral disease.

Selective modulation of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated cytokine expression and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways by dibutyryl-cAMP in BV2 microglial cells.

Cyclic AMP is a very important regulator in a wide range of biological processes, including inflammatory reactions. To investigate the role of cAMP in microglia, we examined the effect of dibutyryl-cAMP (dbcAMP) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated cytokine expression and signaling pathways in murine BV2 microglial cells. DbcAMP strongly suppressed LPS-induced TNF-alpha expression, without affecting NO, IL-6 or TGF-beta1 expression. In contrast, LPS-induced IL-1beta or IL-10 expressions were dramatically increased by dbcAMP. We further examined the effect of elevated cAMP on signaling molecules such as MAP kinases (p38 MAPK, ERK and JNK), NF-kappaB and AP1, which are involved in the regulation of inflammatory responses. DbcAMP decreased the LPS-induced phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, while it modestly enhanced the ERK activity. JNK phosphorylation was slightly reduced by dbcAMP only at the later time point. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay revealed that the elevated cAMP potentiated AP-1 binding activity by enhancing c-fos binding. On the other hand, dbcAMP repressed NF-kappaB-mediated transcription without affecting NF-kappaB binding. Treatment with H89, a selective inhibitor of protein kinase A, completely reversed cAMP-induced IL-10 and IL-1beta upregulation but only partially reversed the cAMP-induced repression of TNF-alpha. Thus, the effect of dbcAMP in BV2 cells appears to be mediated through both protein kinase A-dependent and -independent pathways. Taken together, our results demonstrate that cAMP modulates microglia activation in a diverse and complex manner.

Clusterin and LRP2 are critical components of the hypothalamic feeding regulatory pathway.

Hypothalamic feeding circuits are essential for the maintenance of energy balance. There have been intensive efforts to discover new biological molecules involved in these pathways. Here we report that central administration of clusterin, also called apolipoprotein J, causes anorexia, weight loss and activation of hypothalamic signal transduction-activated transcript-3 in mice. In contrast, inhibition of hypothalamic clusterin action results in increased food intake and body weight, leading to adiposity. These effects are likely mediated through the mutual actions of the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-2, a potential receptor for clusterin, and the long-form leptin receptor. In response to clusterin, the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-2 binding to long-form leptin receptor is greatly enhanced in cultured neuronal cells. Furthermore, long-form leptin receptor deficiency or hypothalamic low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-2 suppression in mice leads to impaired hypothalamic clusterin signalling and actions. Our study identifies the hypothalamic clusterin-low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-2 axis as a novel anorexigenic signalling pathway that is tightly coupled with long-form leptin receptor-mediated signalling.

Central administration of an endoplasmic reticulum stress inducer inhibits the anorexigenic effects of leptin and insulin.

Leptin and insulin are important anorexigenic hormones acting on the hypothalamus. However, most obese humans and animals have reduced hypothalamic responses to leptin and insulin. Increased endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress has been shown to cause insulin resistance in the livers of obese animals. In the present study, we investigated a role of ER stress in the development of central leptin and insulin resistance. Intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of the ER stress inducer thapsigargin (TG) increased food intake and body weight. Furthermore, ICV or intra-hypothalamic administration of TG inhibited the anorexigenic and weight-reducing effects of leptin and insulin. ICV administration of TG by itself activated signal-transduction-activated-transcript-3 (STAT3) and Akt in the hypothalamus, but prevented a further activation of hypothalamic STAT3 and Akt by leptin and insulin. We also found that the expression of the ER stress markers such as phosphorylation of the inositol-requiring kinase-1 (IRE1), spliced form of X-box-binding protein-1 (XBP-1s), glucose-regulated/binding immunoglobulin protein-78, and C/EBP homology protein (CHOP) increased in the hypothalami of diet-induced obese (DIO) mice. Furthermore, treatment of chemical chaperone 4-phenyl butylic acid significantly improved central leptin resistance in DIO mice. These findings suggest that increased hypothalamic ER stress in obese animals may induce central leptin and insulin resistance.