Facially Amphiphilic Skeleton-Derived Antibacterial Cationic Dendrimers.

It is urgent to develop biocompatible and high-efficiency antimicrobial agents since microbial infections have always posed serious challenges to human health. Herein, through the marriage of facially amphiphilic skeletons and cationic dendrimers, high-density positively charged dendrimers D-CA6-N+ (G2) and D-CA2-N+ (G1) were designed and synthesized using the "branch" of facially amphiphilic bile acids, followed by their modification with quaternary ammonium charges. Both dendrimers could self-assemble into nanostructured micelles in aqueous solution. D-CA6-N+ displays potent antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) as low as 7.50 and 7.79 µM, respectively, and has an evidently stronger antibacterial activity than D-CA2-N+. Moreover, D-CA6-N+ can kill S. aureus faster than E. coli. The facial amphiphilicity of the bile acid skeleton facilitates the selective destruction of bacterial membranes and endows dendrimers with negligible hemolysis and cytotoxicity even under a high concentration of 16× MIC. In vivo studies show that D-CA6-N+ is much more effective and safer than penicillin G in treating S. aureus infection and promoting wound healing, which suggests facially amphiphilic skeleton-derived cationic dendrimers can be a promising approach to effectively enhance antibacterial activity and biocompatibility of antibacterial agent, simultaneously.

Upper Critical Solution Temperature Polyvalent Scaffolds Aggregate and Exterminate Bacteria.

Specific recognition and strong affinities of bacteria receptors with the host cell glycoconjugates pave the way to control the bacteria aggregation and kill bacteria. Herein, using aggregation-induced emission (AIE) molecules decorated upper critical solution temperature (UCST) polyvalent scaffold (PATC-GlcN), an approach toward visualizing bacteria aggregation and controlling bacteria-polyvalent scaffolds affinities under temperature stimulus is described. Polyvalent scaffolds with diblocks, one UCST block PATC of polyacrylamides showing a sharp UCST transition and typical AIE behavior, the second bacteria recognition block GlcN of hydrophilic glucosamine modified polyacrylamide, are prepared through a reversible addition and fragmentation chain transfer polymerization. Aggregated chain conformation of polyvalent scaffolds at temperature below UCST induces the aggregation of E. coli ATCC8739, because of the high density of glucosamine moieties, whereas beyond UCST, the hydrophilic state of the scaffolds dissociates the bacteria aggregation. The sweet-talking of bacteria toward the polyvalent scaffolds can be visualized by the fluorescent imaging technique, simultaneously. Due to the specific recognition of polyvalent scaffolds with bacteria, the photothermal agent IR780 loaded PATC-GlcN shows the targeted killing ability toward E. coli ATCC8739 in vitro and in vivo under NIR radiation.

Recent Progress in Bile Acid-Based Antimicrobials.

With the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria and the formation of biofilms by bacteria and fungi, microbial infections gradually threaten global health. Natural antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have low susceptibility for developing resistance due to the membrane targeted mechanism, but instability and high manufacturing cost limit their applications in clinic. Bile acids, a group of steroids in the human body, with high stability, biocompatibility, and inherent facial amphiphilic structure similar to the characteristics of AMPs, have been applied to the biological field, such as drug delivery systems, self-healing hydrogels, antimicrobials, and so on. In this review, we mainly focus on the different classes of bile acid-based antimicrobials in recent years. Various designs and methods for the preparation of unimolecular antimicrobials with bile acid skeletons are first introduced, including coupling of primary amine, quaternary ammonium, and amino acid units with bile acid skeletons. Some representative oligomeric antimicrobials, including dimers of bile acids, are summarized. Finally, macromolecular antimicrobials bearing some positive charges at the main chain or side chain and interaction mechanisms of these bile acid-based antimicrobials are discussed.

Polypseudorotaxanes Derived from Tetraphenylethylene: Preparation and Tandem-Activated Aggregation-Induced Emission.

Tuning the fluorescence of aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-based materials in a reversible way is essential and a requisite for their applications. The multiple host-guest interactions of polypseudorotaxanes (PPRs) could alter the aggregation state of hydrophobic AIE-based polymeric materials and consequently switch the fluorescence. Herein, tetraphenylethylene (TPE) as a typical AIE molecule has been incorporated into the main chains of the guest polyurethane via a step condensation between poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based dicarbonate and TPE-diamine along with the cleavable disulfide bonds. γ-Cyclodextrins (γ-CDs) can selectively recognize the TPE units at the polyurethane chains to afford a PPR. Hydrophilic PEG segments and γ-CD molecules in the PPR could promote the disaggregation of TPE units, suppressing the fluorescence emission of TPE. To restore the aggregated state and fluorescence of TPE units, tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) and α-amylase are sequentially introduced to cleave the disulfide bonds and cut α-1,4 glycosidic bonds of γ-CD, reactivating the AIE behavior of PPR tandemly and accomplishing the reversible cycle of tuning the fluorescence of TPE. The present study provides a tandem way to switch the AIE behavior of polymeric materials reversibly.

Preparation of collagen/cellulose nanocrystals composite films and their potential applications in corneal repair.

As the main component of the natural cornea, collagen (COL) has been widely applied to the construction of corneal repair materials. However, the applications of collagen are limited due to its poor mechanical properties. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) possess excellent mechanical properties, optical transparency and good biocompatibility. Therefore, in this study, we attempted to introduce cellulose nanocrystals into collagen-based films to obtain corneal repair materials with a high strength. CNCs were incorporated at 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10 wt%. The physical properties of these composite films were characterized, and in vitro cell-based analyses were also performed. The COL/CNC films possessed better mechanic properties, and the introduction of CNCs did not affect the water content and light transmittance. The COL/CNC films demonstrated good biocompatibility toward rabbit corneal epithelial cells and keratocytes in vitro. Moreover, the collagen films with appropriate ration of CNCs effectively induced the migration of corneal epithelial cells and inhibited the myofibroblast differentiation of keratocytes. A collagen film with 7 wt% CNCs displayed the best combination of physical properties and biological performance in vitro among all the films. This study describes a nonchemical cross-linking method to enhance the mechanical properties of collagen for use in corneal repair materials and highlights potential application in corneal tissue engineering.

Weak Hydrogen Bonds Lead to Self-Healable and Bioadhesive Hybrid Polymeric Hydrogels with Mineralization-Active Functions.

Hydrogels with self-healing features that can spontaneously repair themselves upon mechanical damage are increasingly attractive for biomedical applications. Many attempts have been made to develop unique hydrogels possessing this property, as well as stimuli-responsiveness and biocompatibility; however, the hydrogel fabrication strategies often involve specific design of functional monomers that are able to optimally provide reversible physical or chemical interactions. Here, we report that weak hydrogen bonds, provided by oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate (OEGMA) and methacrylic acid (MAA), a monomer combination that is commonly used to prepare chemically cross-linking hydrogels, can generate self-healable hydrogels with mechanically resilient and adhesive properties through a facile one-step free radical copolymerization. The hydrogen bonds break and reform, providing an effective energy dissipation mechanism and synergic mechanical reinforcement. The physical properties can be simply tuned by OEGMA/MAA ratio control and reversible pH adjustment. Furthermore, the hydrogel can serve as a robust template for biomineralization to produce hydrogel composite that facilitate cell attachment and proliferations. This work is synthetically simple and dramatically increases the choice of amendable and adhesive hydrogels for industrial and biomedical applications.

Self-Healing Hydrogels of Low Molecular Weight Poly(vinyl alcohol) Assembled by Host-Guest Recognition.

Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) is a cytocompatible synthetic polymer and has been commonly used to prepare hydrogels. Bile acids and ß-cyclodextrin are both natural compounds and they form stable host-guest inclusion complexes. They are attached covalently onto a low molecular weight PVA separately. Self-healing hydrogels can be easily formed by mixing the aqueous solutions of these PVA based polymers. The mechanical properties of the hydrogels can be tuned by varying the molar fractions of bile acid units on PVA. The dynamic inclusion complexation of the host-guest pair of the hydrogel allows the self-healing rapidly under ambient atmosphere and their mechanical properties could recover their original values in 1 min after incision. These PVA based polymers exhibited the good cytocompatibility and high hemocompatibility as shown by their biological evaluations. The use of natural compounds for host-guest interaction make such gels especially convenient to use as biomaterials, an advantage over conventional hydrogels prepared through freeze-thaw method.

Glycopolymers Bearing Galactose and Betulin: Synthesis, Encapsulation, and Lectin Recognition.

Betulin is a natural triterpene compound with anticarcinogen and antiviral activities. It is conjugated with methacrylate and then copolymerized with a galactose-bearing comonomer by RAFT polymerization to yield both random and block copolymers. These glycopolymers are designed to possess similar molecular weights and monomer compositions for easy comparison. They self-assembled into micelles, as shown by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy. The smaller micelles formed by the random copolymers facilitated the encapsulation of Nile Red and released more of this hydrophobic model compound (46% in 4 days versus 32% released from the block copolymers). These glycopolymers interacted with lectins, such as RCA120, as studied by turbidity assay and DLS. The block copolymers formed larger aggregates and clustered faster than the random copolymers. The betulin-based glycopolymers may serve as biocompatible multifunctional biomaterials and carriers for use in targeted release of drugs.

Tunable Upper Critical Solution Temperatures for Acrylamide Copolymers with Bile Acid Pendants.

Acrylamide derivatives of bile acids are chosen as a hydrophobic comonomer to copolymerize with acrylamide via reversible addition and fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization to afford a series of copolymers of P(AAm-co-CAA). These copolymers exhibit a sharp and reversible insoluble-soluble transition in water upon heating to a mixing temperature (Tmix) related to the upper critical solution temperature (UCST). Tmix of these copolymers can be conveniently tuned to a practical temperature range, around 37 °C for biomedical applications. Tmix rises with increasing molar fraction of the bile acid-based acrylamide and increasing concentration of the aqueous solution of the copolymers. The addition of a natural host molecule ß-cyclodextrin lowered the Tmix. The insoluble-soluble transition of the copolymers was also evidenced by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. The biocompatible nature of the bile acids and ß-cyclodextrins may make these copolymers potentially useful for biomedical applications.

"Bitter-Sweet" Polymeric Micelles Formed by Block Copolymers from Glucosamine and Cholic Acid.

Natural compounds glucosamine and cholic acid have been used to make acrylic monomers which are subsequently used to prepare amphiphilic block copolymers by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Despite the striking difference in polarity and solubility, three diblock copolymers consisting of glucosamine and cholic acid pendants with different hydrophilic and hydrophobic chain lengths have been synthesized without the use of protecting groups. They are shown to self-assemble into polymeric micelles with a "bitter" bile acid core and "sweet" sugar shell in aqueous solutions, as evidenced by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. The critical micelle concentration varies with the hydrophobic/hydrophilic ratio, ranging from 0.62 to 1.31 mg/L. Longer chains of polymers induced the formation of larger micelles in range of 50-70 nm. These micelles can solubilize hydrophobic compounds such as Nile Red in aqueous solutions. Their loading capacity mainly depends upon the hydrophobic/hydrophilic ratio of the polymers, and may be also related to the length of the hydrophilic block. These polymeric micelles allowed for a 10-fold increase in the aqueous solubility of paclitaxel and showed no cytotoxicity below the concentration of 500 mg/L. Such properties make these polymeric micelles interesting reservoirs for hydrophobic molecules and drugs for biomedical applications.

A Molecular Necklace: Threading ß-Cyclodextrins onto Polymers Derived from Bile Acids.

A molecular necklace of polypseudorotaxanes was prepared by threading ß-cyclodextrins (ß-CD) onto biodegradable and thermoresponsive polyurethanes derived from bile acids. These polyurethanes were synthesized via a simple step condensation of bile acid-based dicarbonate with poly(ethylene glycol)-diamine. The ß-CD rings slide onto the poly(ethylene glycol) segments and selectively recognize the bile acid units of the polyurethane chains, whereas the poly(ethylene glycol) segments remain crystalline with a lower crystallinity. This bio-compound-derived molecular necklace can be visualized by scanning tunneling microscopy. The polypseudorotaxanes show thermosensitivity in water and the phase transition temperature may be fine-tuned by varying the molar ratios of ß-CD to the bile acid units. Such an interesting necklace model of polypseudorotaxane constructed from natural compounds may lead to the further exploration of their applications, such as as an enzyme model, due to their biological nature.

Thermoresponsiveness of copolymers bearing cholic acid pendants induced by complexation with ß-cyclodextrin.

Copolymers of N-alkylacrylamides and methacrylate bearing cholic acid pendant groups were synthesized via radical polymerization. The cholic acid pendant groups of such copolymers can form complexes with ß-cyclodextrin, and the effect of complexation on their thermoresponsive properties was studied. The phase transition temperatures (transition from hydrophilic to hydrophobic state) of the copolymers gradually increase with the addition of ß-cyclodextrin, due to the complexation of the cholic acid guest with the ß-cyclodextrin host. The increase of the phase transition temperature may be reversed by the addition of a competing guest molecule, potassium 1-adamantylcarboxylate. The host-guest complexation provides a straightforward way to vary the thermoresponsive properties of such copolymers.

Block and random copolymers bearing cholic acid and oligo(ethylene glycol) pendant groups: aggregation, thermosensitivity, and drug loading.

A series of block and random copolymers consisting of oligo(ethylene glycol) and cholic acid pendant groups were synthesized via ring-opening metathesis polymerization of their norbornene derivatives. These block and random copolymers were designed to have similar molecular weights and comonomer ratios; both types of copolymers showed thermosensitivity in aqueous solutions with similar cloud points. The copolymers self-assembled into micelles in water as shown by dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. The hydrodynamic diameter of the micelles formed by the block copolymer is much larger and exhibited a broad and gradual shrinkage from 20 to 54 °C below its cloud point, while the micelles formed by the random copolymers are smaller in size but exhibited some swelling in the same temperature range. Based on in vitro drug release studies, 78% and 24% paclitaxel (PTX) were released in 24 h from micelles self-assembled by the block and random copolymers, respectively. PTX-loaded micelles formed by the block and random copolymers exhibited apparent antitumor efficacy toward the ovarian cancer cells with a particularly low half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 27.4 and 40.2 ng/mL, respectively. Cholic acid-based micelles show promise as a versatile and potent platform for cancer chemotherapy.

Polymerizable rotaxane of cucurbituril protecting dopamine based adhesive hydrogels.

The catechol moiety found within mussel proteins plays a pivotal role in enhancing their adhesive properties. Nonetheless, catechol compounds, such as dopamine (DOP) derivatives, are susceptible to oxidation, leading to the formation of quinone. This oxidation process poses a significant challenge in the development of DOP-based hydrogels, hampering their adhesion capabilities and hindering polymerization. To protect DOP moieties from oxidation, DOP and N-(3-aminopropyl)methacrylamide (AMA) moieties were grafted onto the side groups of biocompatible poly(glutamic acid) (PGA). Subsequently, the DOP unit, serving as a second guest, would be captured by a polymerizable rotaxane of cucurbituril (CB[n]), in which the host molecule CB[8] complexed with the first guest, polymerizable methyl viologen (MV), forming a protective function and dynamic cross-linking. Upon exposure to light curing, a composite network emerged through the synergy of covalent cross-linking and supramolecular host-guest complexation of DOP with CB[8]. The generated complexation between DOP and CB[8] could protect the DOP moieties, resulting in photocured hydrogels with exceptional adhesive strength and remarkable tensile capabilities. Moreover, 3D printing technology was used to create various models with these DOP-based hydrogels, demonstrating their promising applications in future.

Lipase-catalyzed ring-opening polymerization of natural compound-based cyclic monomers.

The need for sustainable and environment-friendly materials has led to growing interest in the development of biodegradable polymers based on natural compounds. However, metal-based catalysts used in the polymerization process may cause concerns about the toxicity of the resultant polymers. Therefore, polymers derived from natural compounds and synthesized through the use of green catalysts are highly desirable. Lipase-catalyzed ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of biocompound-based cyclic monomers has emerged as a promising and green strategy for the design and synthesis of such polymers. In this review, we summarize reports on the use of ROP catalyzed by lipase for cyclic monomers derived from natural compounds, including bile acid- and porphyrin-based macrocycles, carbonate-based macrocycles, lactones, and cyclic anhydrides, with an emphasis on ring-closure reactions for the synthesis of cyclic monomers, the types of lipases for the ROP and the choice of reaction conditions (temperature, solvent, reaction time, etc.). Moreover, the current challenges and perspectives for the choice and reusability of lipases, ring-closure versus ring-opening reactions, monomer design, and potential applications are discussed.

Inhalable GSH-Triggered Nanoparticles to Treat Commensal Bacterial Infection in In Situ Lung Tumors.

Bacterial infection has been considered one of the primary reasons for low survival rate of lung cancer patients. Herein, we demonstrated that a kind of mesoporous silica nanoparticles loaded with anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and antimicrobial peptide HHC36 (AMP) (MSN@DOX-AMP) can kill both commensal bacteria and tumor cells under GSH-triggering, modulating the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, significantly treating commensal bacterial infection, and eliminating in situ lung tumors in a commensal model. Meanwhile, MSN@DOX-AMP encapsulated DOX and AMP highly efficiently via a combined strategy of physical adsorption and click chemistry and exhibited excellent hemocompatibility and biocompatibility. Importantly, MSN@DOX-AMP could be inhaled and accumulate in lung by a needle-free nebulization, achieving a better therapeutic effect. This system is expected to serve as a straightforward platform to treat commensal bacterial infections in tumors and promote the translation of such inhaled GSH-triggered MSN@DOX-AMP to clinical treatments of lung cancer.

Main-Chain Cationic Bile Acid Polymers Mimicking Facially Amphiphilic Antimicrobial Peptides.

Antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections have led to an increased demand for antibacterial agents that do not contribute to antimicrobial resistance. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with the facially amphiphilic structures have demonstrated remarkable effectiveness, including the ability to suppress antibiotic resistance during bacterial treatment. Herein, inspired by the facially amphiphilic structure of AMPs, the facially amphiphilic skeletons of bile acids (BAs) are utilized as building blocks to create a main-chain cationic bile acid polymer (MCBAP) with macromolecular facial amphiphilicity via polycondensation and a subsequent quaternization. The optimal MCBAP displays an effective activity against Gram-positive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Gram-negative Escherichia coli, fast killing efficacy, superior bactericidal stability in vitro, and potent anti-infectious performance in vivo using the MRSA-infected wound model. MCBAP shows the low possibility to develop drug-resistant bacteria after repeated exposure, which may ascribe to the macromolecular facial amphiphilicity promoting bacterial membrane disruption and the generation of reactive oxygen species. The easy synthesis and low cost of MCBAP, the superior antimicrobial performance, and the therapeutic potential in treating MRSA infection altogether demonstrate that BAs are a promising group of building blocks to mimic the facially amphiphilic structure of AMPs in treating MRSA infection and alleviating antibiotic resistance.

A self-monitoring microneedle patch for light-controlled synergistic treatment of melanoma.

Melanoma is the most aggressive and malignant form of skin cancer. Current melanoma treatment methods generally suffer from frequent drug administration as well as difficulty in direct monitoring of drug release. Here, a self-monitoring microneedle (MN)-based drug delivery system, which integrates a dissolving MN patch with aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-active PATC microparticles, is designed to achieve light-controlled pulsatile chemo-photothermal synergistic therapy of melanoma. The PATC polymeric particles, termed D/I@PATC, encapsulate both of chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin (DOX) and the photothermal agent indocyanine green (ICG). Upon light illumination, PATC gradually dissociates into smaller particles, causing the release of encapsulated DOX and subsequent fluorescence intensity change of PATC particles, thereby not only enabling direct observation of the drug release process under light stimuli, but also facilitating verification of drug release by fluorescence recovery after light trigger. Moreover, encapsulation of ICG in PATC particles displays significant improvement of its photothermal stability both in vitro and in vivo. In a tumor-bearing mouse, the application of one D/I@PATC MN patch combining with two cycles of light irradiation showed excellent controllable chemo-photothermal efficacy and exhibited ∼97% melanoma inhibition rate without inducing any evident systemic toxicity, suggesting a great potential for skin cancer treatment in clinics.

Polymerizable rotaxane hydrogels for three-dimensional printing fabrication of wearable sensors.

While hydrogels enable a variety of applications in wearable sensors and electronic skins, they are susceptible to fatigue fracture during cyclic deformations owing to their inefficient fatigue resistance. Herein, acrylated ß-cyclodextrin with bile acid is self-assembled into a polymerizable pseudorotaxane via precise host-guest recognition, which is photopolymerized with acrylamide to obtain conductive polymerizable rotaxane hydrogels (PR-Gel). The topological networks of PR-Gel enable all desirable properties in this system due to the large conformational freedom of the mobile junctions, including the excellent stretchability along with superior fatigue resistance. PR-Gel based strain sensor can sensitively detect and distinguish large body motions and subtle muscle movements. The three-dimensional printing fabricated sensors of PR-Gel exhibit high resolution and altitude complexity, and real-time human electrocardiogram signals are detected with high repeating stability. PR-Gel can self-heal in air, and has highly repeatable adhesion to human skin, demonstrating its great potential in wearable sensors.

Marriage of High-Throughput Gradient Surface Generation With Statistical Learning for the Rational Design of Functionalized Biomaterials.

Functional biomaterial is already an important aspect in modern therapeutics; yet, the design of novel multi-functional biomaterial is still a challenging task nowadays. When several biofunctional components are present, the complexity that arises from their combinations and interactions will lead to tedious trial-and-error screening. In this work, a novel strategy of biomaterial rational design through the marriage of gradient surface generation with statistical learning is presented. Not only can parameter combinations be screened in a high-throughput fashion, but also the optimal conditions beyond the experimentally tested range can be extrapolated from the models. The power of the strategy is demonstrated in rationally designing an unprecedented ternary functionalized surface for orthopedic implant, with optimal osteogenic, angiogenic, and neurogenic activities, and its optimality and the best osteointegration promotion are confirmed in vitro and in vivo, respectively. The presented strategy is expected to open up new possibilities in the rational design of biomaterials.