Hepcidin induction by pathogens and pathogen-derived molecules is strongly dependent on interleukin-6.

Hepcidin, the iron-regulatory hormone, is increased during infection or inflammation, causing hypoferremia. This response is thought to be a host defense mechanism that restricts iron availability to invading pathogens. It is not known if hepcidin is differentially induced by bacterial versus viral infections, whether the stimulation of pattern recognition receptors directly regulates hepcidin transcription, or which of the proposed signaling pathways are essential for hepcidin increase during infection. We analyzed hepcidin induction and its dependence on interleukin-6 (IL-6) in response to common bacterial or viral infections in mice or in response to a panel of pathogen-derived molecules (PAMPs) in mice and human primary hepatocytes. In wild-type (WT) mice, hepcidin mRNA was induced several hundred-fold both by a bacterial (Streptococcus pneumoniae) and a viral infection (influenza virus PR8) within 2 to 5 days. Treatment of mice and human primary hepatocytes with most Toll-like receptor ligands increased hepcidin mRNA within 6 h. Hepcidin induction by microbial stimuli was IL-6 dependent. IL-6 knockout mice failed to increase hepcidin in response to S. pneumoniae or influenza infection and had greatly diminished hepcidin response to PAMPs. In vitro, hepcidin induction by PAMPs in primary human hepatocytes was abolished by the addition of neutralizing IL-6 antibodies. Our results support the key role of IL-6 in hepcidin regulation in response to a variety of infectious and inflammatory stimuli.

Novel dimeric Smac analogs as prospective anticancer agents.

A small library of monovalent Smac mimics with general structure NMeAla-Tle-(4R)-4-Benzyl-Pro-Xaa-cysteamide, was synthesized (Xaa=hydrophobic residue). The library was screened in vitro against human breast cancer cell lines MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, and two most active compounds oligomerized via S-alkylation giving bivalent and trivalent derivatives. The most active bivalent analogue SMAC17-2X was tested in vivo and in physiological conditions (mouse model) it exerted a potent anticancer effect resulting in ∼23.4days of tumor growth delay at 7.5mg/kg dose. Collectively, our findings suggest that bivalent Smac analogs obtained via S-alkylation protocol may be a suitable platform for the development of new anticancer therapeutics.

The pyruvate kinase activator mitapivat reduces hemolysis and improves anemia in a ß-thalassemia mouse model.

Anemia in ß-thalassemia is related to ineffective erythropoiesis and reduced red cell survival. Excess free heme and accumulation of unpaired α-globin chains impose substantial oxidative stress on ß-thalassemic erythroblasts and erythrocytes, impacting cell metabolism. We hypothesized that increased pyruvate kinase activity induced by mitapivat (AG-348) in the Hbbth3/+ mouse model for ß-thalassemia would reduce chronic hemolysis and ineffective erythropoiesis through stimulation of red cell glycolytic metabolism. Oral mitapivat administration ameliorated ineffective erythropoiesis and anemia in Hbbth3/+ mice. Increased ATP, reduced reactive oxygen species production, and reduced markers of mitochondrial dysfunction associated with improved mitochondrial clearance suggested enhanced metabolism following mitapivat administration in ß-thalassemia. The amelioration of responsiveness to erythropoietin resulted in reduced soluble erythroferrone, increased liver Hamp expression, and diminished liver iron overload. Mitapivat reduced duodenal Dmt1 expression potentially by activating the pyruvate kinase M2-HIF2α axis, representing a mechanism additional to Hamp in controlling iron absorption and preventing ß-thalassemia-related liver iron overload. In ex vivo studies on erythroid precursors from patients with ß-thalassemia, mitapivat enhanced erythropoiesis, promoted erythroid maturation, and decreased apoptosis. Overall, pyruvate kinase activation as a treatment modality for ß-thalassemia in preclinical model systems had multiple beneficial effects in the erythropoietic compartment and beyond, providing a strong scientific basis for further clinical trials.

Environmental tobacco smoke effects on lung surfactant film organization.

Adsorption of the clinical lung surfactants (LS) Curosurf or Survanta from aqueous suspension to the air-water interface progresses from multi-bilayer aggregates through multilayer films to a coexistence between multilayer and monolayer domains. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) alters this progression as shown by Langmuir isotherms, fluorescence microscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM). After 12 h of LS exposure to ETS, AFM images of Langmuir-Blodgett deposited films show that ETS reduces the amount of material near the interface and alters how surfactant is removed from the interface during compression. For Curosurf, ETS prevents refining of the film composition during cycling; this leads to higher minimum surface tensions. ETS also changes the morphology of the Curosurf film by reducing the size of condensed phase domains from 8-12 microm to approximately 2 microm, suggesting a decrease in the line tension between the domains. The minimum surface tension and morphology of the Survanta film are less impacted by ETS exposure, although the amount of material associated with the film is reduced in a similar way to Curosurf. Fluorescence and mass spectra of Survanta dispersions containing native bovine SP-B treated with ETS indicate the oxidative degradation of protein aromatic amino acid residue side chains. Native bovine SP-C isolated from ETS exposed Survanta had changes in molecular mass consistent with deacylation of the lipoprotein. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) characterization of the hydrophobic proteins from ETS treated Survanta dispersions show significant changes in the conformation of SP-B and SP-C that correlate with the altered surface activity and morphology of the lipid-protein film.

Structural and functional properties of peptides based on the N-terminus of HIV-1 gp41 and the C-terminus of the amyloid-beta protein.

Given their high alanine and glycine levels, plaque formation, alpha-helix to beta-sheet interconversion and fusogenicity, FP (i.e., the N-terminal fusion peptide of HIV-1 gp41; 23 residues) and amyloids were proposed as belonging to the same protein superfamily. Here, we further test whether FP may exhibit 'amyloid-like' characteristics, by contrasting its structural and functional properties with those of Abeta(26-42), a 17-residue peptide from the C-terminus of the amyloid-beta protein responsible for Alzheimer's. FTIR spectroscopy, electron microscopy, light scattering and predicted amyloid structure aggregation (PASTA) indicated that aqueous FP and Abeta(26-42) formed similar networked beta-sheet fibrils, although the FP fibril interactions were weaker. FP and Abeta(26-42) both lysed and aggregated human erythrocytes, with the hemolysis-onsets correlated with the conversion of alpha-helix to beta-sheet for each peptide in liposomes. Congo red (CR), a marker of amyloid plaques in situ, similarly inhibited either FP- or Abeta(26-42)-induced hemolysis, and surface plasmon resonance indicated that this may be due to direct CR-peptide binding. These findings suggest that membrane-bound beta-sheets of FP may contribute to the cytopathicity of HIV in vivo through an amyloid-type mechanism, and support the classification of HIV-1 FP as an 'amyloid homolog' (or 'amylog').

Allosteric heat shock protein 70 inhibitors block hepatitis C virus assembly.

The human molecular chaperones heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) and heat shock cognate protein 70 (Hsc70) bind to the hepatitis C viral nonstructural protein 5A (NS5A) and regulate its activity. Specifically, Hsp70 is involved in NS5A-augmented internal ribosomal entry site (IRES)-mediated translation of the viral genome, whilst Hsc70 appears to be primarily important for intracellular infectious virion assembly. To better understand the importance of these two chaperones in the viral life cycle, infected human cells were treated with allosteric Hsp70/Hsc70 inhibitors (AHIs). Treatment with AHIs significantly reduced the production of intracellular virus at concentrations that were non-toxic to human hepatoma Huh7.5 cells. The supernatant of treated cultures was then used to infect naïve cells, revealing that AHIs also lowered levels of secreted virus. In contrast to their effects on virion assembly, AHIs did not impact the stability of NS5A or viral protein translation in IRES assays. These results suggest that Hsc70 plays a particularly important and sensitive role in virion assembly. Indeed, it was found that combination of AHIs with a peptide-based viral translation inhibitor exhibited additive antiviral activity. Together these results suggest that the host Hsc70 is a new antiviral target and that its inhibitors utilise a new mechanism of action.

Structural characterization of the HSP70 interaction domain of the hepatitis C viral protein NS5A.

We previously identified the NS5A/HSP70 binding site to be a hairpin moiety at C-terminus of NS5A domain I and showed a corresponding cyclized polyarginine-tagged synthetic peptide (HCV4) significantly blocks virus production. Here, sequence comparison confirmed five residues to be conserved. Based on NS5A domain I crystal structure, Phe171, Val173, and Tyr178 were predicted to form the binding interface. Substitution of Phe171 and Val173 with more hydrophobic unusual amino acids improved peptide antiviral activity and HSP70 binding, while similar substitutions at Tyr178 had a negative effect. Substitution of non-conserved residues with arginines maintained antiviral activity and HSP70 binding and dispensed with polyarginine tag for cellular entry. Peptide cyclization improved antiviral activity and HSP70 binding. The cyclic retro-inverso analog displayed the best antiviral properties. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed a secondary structure consisting of an N-terminal beta-sheet followed by a turn and a C-terminal beta-sheet. These peptides constitute a new class of anti-HCV compounds.

The NS5A-binding heat shock proteins HSC70 and HSP70 play distinct roles in the hepatitis C viral life cycle.

We previously identified HSP70 and HSC70 in complex with NS5A in a proteomic screen. Here, coimmunoprecipitation studies confirmed NS5A/HSC70 complex formation during infection, and immunofluorescence studies showed NS5A and HSC70 to colocalize. Unlike HSP70, HSC70 knockdown did not decrease viral protein levels. Rather, intracellular infectious virion assembly was significantly impaired by HSC70 knockdown. We also discovered that both HSC70 nucleotide binding and substrate binding domains directly bind NS5A whereas only the HSP70 nucleotide binding domain does. Knockdown of both HSC70 and HSP70 demonstrated an additive reduction in virus production. This data suggests that HSC70 and HSP70 play discrete roles in the viral life cycle. Investigation of these different functions may facilitate developing of novel strategies that target host proteins to treat HCV infection.

Context mediates antimicrobial efficacy of kinocidin congener peptide RP-1.

Structure-mechanism relationships are key determinants of host defense peptide efficacy. These relationships are influenced by anatomic, physiologic and microbiologic contexts. Structure-mechanism correlates were assessed for the synthetic peptide RP-1, modeled on microbicidal domains of platelet kinocidins. Antimicrobial efficacies and mechanisms of action against susceptible ((S)) or resistant ((R)) Salmonella typhimurium (ST), Staphylococcus aureus (SA), and Candida albicans (CA) strain pairs were studied at pH 7.5 and 5.5. Although RP-1 was active against all study organisms, it exhibited greater efficacy against bacteria at pH 7.5, but greater efficacy against CA at pH 5.5. RP-1 de-energized SA and CA, but caused hyperpolarization of ST in both pH conditions. However, RP-1 permeabilized ST(S) and CA strains at both pH, whereas permeabilization was modest for ST(R) or SA strain at either pH. Biochemical analysis, molecular modeling, and FTIR spectroscopy data revealed that RP-1 has indistinguishable net charge and backbone trajectories at pH 5.5 and 7.5. Yet, concordant with organism-specific efficacy, surface plasmon resonance, and FTIR, molecular dynamics revealed modest helical order increases but greater RP-1 avidity and penetration of bacterial than eukaryotic lipid systems, particularly at pH 7.5. The present findings suggest that pH- and target-cell lipid contexts influence selective antimicrobial efficacy and mechanisms of RP-1 action. These findings offer new insights into selective antimicrobial efficacy and context-specificity of antimicrobial peptides in host defense, and support design strategies for potent anti-infective peptides with minimal concomitant cytotoxicity.

Grifonin-1: a small HIV-1 entry inhibitor derived from the algal lectin, Griffithsin.

BACKGROUND: Griffithsin, a 121-residue protein isolated from a red algal Griffithsia sp., binds high mannose N-linked glycans of virus surface glycoproteins with extremely high affinity, a property that allows it to prevent the entry of primary isolates and laboratory strains of T- and M-tropic HIV-1. We used the sequence of a portion of griffithsin's sequence as a design template to create smaller peptides with antiviral and carbohydrate-binding properties. METHODOLOGY/RESULTS: The new peptides derived from a trio of homologous ß-sheet repeats that comprise the motifs responsible for its biological activity. Our most active antiviral peptide, grifonin-1 (GRFN-1), had an EC50 of 190.8±11.0 nM in in vitro TZM-bl assays and an EC(50) of 546.6±66.1 nM in p24gag antigen release assays. GRFN-1 showed considerable structural plasticity, assuming different conformations in solvents that differed in polarity and hydrophobicity. Higher concentrations of GRFN-1 formed oligomers, based on intermolecular ß-sheet interactions. Like its parent protein, GRFN-1 bound viral glycoproteins gp41 and gp120 via the N-linked glycans on their surface. CONCLUSION: Its substantial antiviral activity and low toxicity in vitro suggest that GRFN-1 and/or its derivatives may have therapeutic potential as topical and/or systemic agents directed against HIV-1.

Oxpholipin 11D: an anti-inflammatory peptide that binds cholesterol and oxidized phospholipids.

BACKGROUND: Many gram-positive bacteria produce pore-forming exotoxins that contain a highly conserved, 12-residue domain (ECTGLAWEWWRT) that binds cholesterol. This domain is usually flanked N-terminally by arginine and C-terminally by valine. We used this 14-residue sequence as a template to create a small library of peptides that bind cholesterol and other lipids. METHODOLOGY/RESULTS: Several of these peptides manifested anti-inflammatory properties in a predictive in vitro monocyte chemotactic assay, and some also diminished the pro-inflammatory effects of low-density lipoprotein in apoE-deficient mice. The most potent analog, Oxpholipin-11D (OxP-11D), contained D-amino acids exclusively and was identical to the 14-residue design template except that diphenylalanine replaced cysteine-3. In surface plasmon resonance binding studies, OxP-11D bound oxidized (phospho)lipids and sterols in much the same manner as D-4F, a widely studied cardioprotective apoA-I-mimetic peptide with anti-inflammatory properties. In contrast to D-4F, which adopts a stable alpha-helical structure in solution, the OxP-11D structure was flexible and contained multiple turn-like features. CONCLUSION: Given the substantial evidence that oxidized phospholipids are pro-inflammatory in vivo, OxP-11D and other Oxpholipins may have therapeutic potential.

Critical structural and functional roles for the N-terminal insertion sequence in surfactant protein B analogs.

BACKGROUND: Surfactant protein B (SP-B; 79 residues) belongs to the saposin protein superfamily, and plays functional roles in lung surfactant. The disulfide cross-linked, N- and C-terminal domains of SP-B have been theoretically predicted to fold as charged, amphipathic helices, suggesting their participation in surfactant activities. Earlier structural studies with Mini-B, a disulfide-linked construct based on the N- and C-terminal regions of SP-B (i.e., approximately residues 8-25 and 63-78), confirmed that these neighboring domains are helical; moreover, Mini-B retains critical in vitro and in vivo surfactant functions of the native protein. Here, we perform similar analyses on a Super Mini-B construct that has native SP-B residues (1-7) attached to the N-terminus of Mini-B, to test whether the N-terminal sequence is also involved in surfactant activity. METHODOLOGY/RESULTS: FTIR spectra of Mini-B and Super Mini-B in either lipids or lipid-mimics indicated that these peptides share similar conformations, with primary alpha-helix and secondary beta-sheet and loop-turns. Gel electrophoresis demonstrated that Super Mini-B was dimeric in SDS detergent-polyacrylamide, while Mini-B was monomeric. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR), predictive aggregation algorithms, and molecular dynamics (MD) and docking simulations further suggested a preliminary model for dimeric Super Mini-B, in which monomers self-associate to form a dimer peptide with a "saposin-like" fold. Similar to native SP-B, both Mini-B and Super Mini-B exhibit in vitro activity with spread films showing near-zero minimum surface tension during cycling using captive bubble surfactometry. In vivo, Super Mini-B demonstrates oxygenation and dynamic compliance that are greater than Mini-B and compare favorably to full-length SP-B. CONCLUSION: Super Mini-B shows enhanced surfactant activity, probably due to the self-assembly of monomer peptide into dimer Super Mini-B that mimics the functions and putative structure of native SP-B.

Anti-inflammatory apoA-I-mimetic peptides bind oxidized lipids with much higher affinity than human apoA-I.

4F is an anti-inflammatory, apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I)-mimetic peptide that is active in vivo at nanomolar concentrations in the presence of a large molar excess of apoA-I. Physiologic concentrations ( approximately 35 microM) of human apoA-I did not inhibit the production of LDL-induced monocyte chemotactic activity by human aortic endothelial cell cultures, but adding nanomolar concentrations of 4F in the presence of approximately 35 microM apoA-I significantly reduced this inflammatory response. We analyzed lipid binding by surface plasmon resonance. The anti-inflammatory 4F peptide bound oxidized lipids with much higher affinity than did apoA-I. Initially, we examined the binding of PAPC (1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine) and observed that its oxidized products bound 4F with an affinity that was approximately 4-6 orders of magnitude higher than that of apoA-I. This high binding affinity was confirmed in studies with defined lipids and phospholipids. 3F-2 and 3F(14) are also amphipathic alpha-helical octadecapeptides, but 3F-2 inhibits atherosclerosis in mice and 3F(14) does not. Like 4F, 3F-2 also bound oxidized phospholipids with very high affinity, whereas 3F(14) resembled apoA-I. The extraordinary ability of 4F to bind pro-inflammatory oxidized lipids probably accounts for its remarkable anti-inflammatory properties.

Dynamic surface activity of a fully synthetic phospholipase-resistant lipid/peptide lung surfactant.

BACKGROUND: This study examines the surface activity and resistance to phospholipase degradation of a fully-synthetic lung surfactant containing a novel diether phosphonolipid (DEPN-8) plus a 34 amino acid peptide (Mini-B) related to native surfactant protein (SP)-B. Activity studies used adsorption, pulsating bubble, and captive bubble methods to assess a range of surface behaviors, supplemented by molecular studies using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, circular dichroism (CD), and plasmon resonance. Calf lung surfactant extract (CLSE) was used as a positive control. RESULTS: DEPN-8+1.5% (by wt.) Mini-B was fully resistant to degradation by phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) in vitro, while CLSE was severely degraded by this enzyme. Mini-B interacted with DEPN-8 at the molecular level based on FTIR spectroscopy, and had significant plasmon resonance binding affinity for DEPN-8. DEPN-8+1.5% Mini-B had greatly increased adsorption compared to DEPN-8 alone, but did not fully equal the very high adsorption of CLSE. In pulsating bubble studies at a low phospholipid concentration of 0.5 mg/ml, DEPN-8+1.5% Mini-B and CLSE both reached minimum surface tensions <1 mN/m after 10 min of cycling. DEPN-8 (2.5 mg/ml)+1.5% Mini-B and CLSE (2.5 mg/ml) also reached minimum surface tensions <1 mN/m at 10 min of pulsation in the presence of serum albumin (3 mg/ml) on the pulsating bubble. In captive bubble studies, DEPN-8+1.5% Mini-B and CLSE both generated minimum surface tensions <1 mN/m on 10 successive cycles of compression/expansion at quasi-static and dynamic rates. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that DEPN-8 and 1.5% Mini-B form an interactive binary molecular mixture with very high surface activity and the ability to resist degradation by phospholipases in inflammatory lung injury. These characteristics are promising for the development of related fully-synthetic lipid/peptide exogenous surfactants for treating diseases of surfactant deficiency or dysfunction.

The N-terminus of hepcidin is essential for its interaction with ferroportin: structure-function study.

Hepcidin is the principal iron-regulatory hormone. It acts by binding to the iron exporter ferroportin, inducing its internalization and degradation, thereby blocking cellular iron efflux. The bioactive 25 amino acid (aa) peptide has a hairpin structure stabilized by 4 disulfide bonds. We synthesized a series of hepcidin derivatives and determined their bioactivity in a cell line expressing ferroportin-GFP fusion protein, by measuring the degradation of ferroportin-GFP and the accumulation of ferritin after peptide treatment. Bioactivity was also assayed in mice by the induction of hypoferremia. Serial deletion of N-terminal amino acids caused progressive decrease in activity which was completely lost when 5 N-terminal aa's were deleted. Synthetic 3-aa and 6-aa N-terminal peptides alone, however, did not internalize ferroportin and did not interfere with ferroportin internalization by native hepcidin. Deletion of 2 C-terminal aa's did not affect peptide activity. Removal of individual disulfide bonds by pairwise substitution of cysteines with alanines also did not affect peptide activity in vitro. However, these peptides were less active in vivo, likely because of their decreased stability in circulation. G71D and K83R, substitutions previously described in humans, did not affect hepcidin activity. Apart from the essential nature of the N-terminus, hepcidin structure appears permissive for mutations.