Disparities and trends in the participation of minorities, women, and the elderly in breast, colorectal, lung, and prostate cancer clinical trials.

BACKGROUND: This study was done to determine the representation of minorities, women, and the elderly in National Cancer Institute (NCI) clinical trials. METHODS: This is an analysis in the NCI Clinical Data Update System. Patients were evaluated in breast, colorectal, lung, and prostate cancer trials from 2000 to 2019. Representation in a trial was determined by race/ethnicity, sex, and age. Secondarily, the change in trial participation by multivariable analysis by comparing years 2000 through 2004 to 2015 through 2019 was evaluated. RESULTS: The cohort included 242,720 participants: 197,320 Non-Hispanic White (81.3%), 21,190 Black (8.7%), 11,587 Hispanic (4.8%), and 6880 Asian/Pacific Islander (2.8%). Black and Hispanic patients were underrepresented for colorectal (odds ratio [OR], 0.58; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.50-0.67; P < .001 and OR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.64-0.87; P < .001, respectively), lung (OR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.76-0.91; P < .001 and 0.66; 95% CI, 0.57-0.77; P < .001, respectively), and prostate cancer trials (OR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.79-0.92; P < .001 and OR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.51-0.66; P < .001) between 2015 and 2019. The odds of participation in 2015 to 2019 increased among Black patients in breast (OR, 2.19; 95% CI, 2.07-%2.32; P < .001), lung (OR, 1.54; 95% CI, 1.38-1.73; P < .001), and prostate cancer trials (OR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.04-1.26; P < .001). The odds of participation in a trial among Hispanic patients increased for breast (OR, 3.32; 95% CI, 3.09-3.56; P < .001), colorectal (OR, 2.46; 95% CI, 2.04-2.96; P < .001), lung (OR, 3.88; 95% CI, 3.20-4.69; P < .001), and prostate cancer (OR, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.42-2.04; P = .005). CONCLUSIONS: This study identified that Black and Hispanic patients remain underrepresented in trials, but in recent years, participation has increased. These findings indicate that minority participation has increased over time, but further efforts are needed.

Metastasis and Mortality in Men With Low- and Intermediate-Risk Prostate Cancer on Active Surveillance.

BACKGROUND: Active surveillance (AS) is a safe treatment option for men with low-risk, localized prostate cancer. However, the safety of AS for patients with intermediate-risk prostate cancer remains unclear. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We identified men with NCCN-classified low-risk and favorable and unfavorable intermediate-risk prostate cancer diagnosed between 2001 and 2015 and initially managed with AS in the Veterans Health Administration. We analyzed progression to definitive treatment, metastasis, prostate cancer-specific mortality (PCSM), and all-cause mortality using cumulative incidences and multivariable competing-risks regression. RESULTS: The cohort included 9,733 men, of whom 1,007 (10.3%) had intermediate-risk disease (773 [76.8%] favorable, 234 [23.2%] unfavorable), followed for a median of 7.6 years. The 10-year cumulative incidence of metastasis was significantly higher for patients with favorable (9.6%; 95% CI, 7.1%-12.5%; P<.001) and unfavorable intermediate-risk disease (19.2%; 95% CI, 13.4%-25.9%; P<.001) than for those with low-risk disease (1.5%; 95% CI, 1.2%-1.9%). The 10-year cumulative incidence of PCSM was also significantly higher for patients with favorable (3.7%; 95% CI, 2.3%-5.7%; P<.001) and unfavorable intermediate-risk disease (11.8%; 95% CI, 6.8%-18.4%; P<.001) than for those with low-risk disease (1.1%; 95% CI, 0.8%-1.4%). In multivariable competing-risks regression, favorable and unfavorable intermediate-risk patients had significantly increased risks of metastasis and PCSM compared with low-risk patients (all P<.001). CONCLUSIONS: Compared with low-risk patients, those with favorable and unfavorable intermediate-risk prostate cancer managed with AS are at increased risk of metastasis and PCSM. AS may be an appropriate option for carefully selected patients with favorable intermediate-risk prostate cancer, though identification of appropriate candidates and AS protocols should be tested in future prospective studies.

Clarifying the Trade-Offs of Risk-Stratified Screening for Prostate Cancer: A Cost-Effectiveness Study.

Cancer risk prediction is necessary for precision early detection, which matches screening intensity to risk. However, practical steps for translating risk predictions to risk-stratified screening policies are not well established. We used a validated population prostate-cancer model to simulate the outcomes of strategies that increase intensity for men at high risk and reduce intensity for men at low risk. We defined risk by the Prompt Prostate Genetic Score (PGS) (Stratify Genomics, San Diego, California), a germline genetic test. We first recalibrated the model to reflect the disease incidence observed within risk strata using data from a large prevention trial where some participants were tested with Prompt PGS. We then simulated risk-stratified strategies in a population with the same risk distribution as the trial and evaluated the cost-effectiveness of risk-stratified screening versus universal (risk-agnostic) screening. Prompt PGS risk-adapted screening was more cost-effective when universal screening was conservative. Risk-stratified strategies improved outcomes at a cost of less than $100,000 per quality-adjusted life year compared with biennial screening starting at age 55 years, but risk stratification was not cost-effective compared with biennial screening starting at age 45. Heterogeneity of risk and fraction of the population within each stratum were also important determinants of cost-effectiveness.

Active surveillance for intermediate-risk prostate cancer in African American and non-Hispanic White men.

BACKGROUND: The safety of active surveillance (AS) for African American men compared with non-Hispanic White (White) men with intermediate-risk prostate cancer is unclear. METHODS: The authors identified patients with modified National Comprehensive Cancer Network favorable ("low-intermediate") and unfavorable ("high-intermediate") intermediate-risk prostate cancer diagnosed between 2001 and 2015 and initially managed with AS in the Veterans Health Administration database. They analyzed definitive treatment, disease progression, metastases, prostate cancer-specific mortality (PCSM), and all-cause mortality by using cumulative incidences and multivariable competing-risks (disease progression, metastasis, and PCSM) or Cox (all-cause mortality) regression. RESULTS: The cohort included 1007 men (African Americans, 330 [32.8%]; Whites, 677 [67.2%]) followed for a median of 7.7 years; 773 (76.8%) had low-intermediate-risk disease, and 234 (23.2%) had high-intermediate-risk disease. The 10-year cumulative incidences of definitive treatment were not significantly different (African Americans, 83.5%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 78.5%-88.7%; Whites, 80.6%; 95% CI, 76.6%-84.4%; P = .17). Among those with low-intermediate-risk disease, there were no significant differences in the 10-year cumulative incidences of disease progression (African Americans, 46.8%; 95% CI, 40.0%-53.3%; Whites, 46.9%; 95% CI, 42.1%-51.5%; P = .91), metastasis (African Americans, 7.1%; 95% CI, 3.7%-11.8%; Whites, 10.8%; 95% CI, 7.6%-14.6%; P = .17), or PCSM (African Americans, 3.8%; 95% CI, 1.6%-7.5%; Whites, 3.8%; 95% CI, 2.0%-6.3%; P = .69). In a multivariable regression including the entire cohort, African American race was not associated with increased risks of definitive treatment, disease progression, metastasis, PCSM, or all-cause mortality (all P > .30). CONCLUSIONS: Outcomes in the Veterans Affairs Health System were similar for African American and White men treated for low-intermediate-risk prostate cancer with AS.

Impact of Late Dosing on Testosterone Suppression with 2 Different Leuprolide Acetate Formulations: In Situ Gel and Microsphere. An Analysis of United States Clinical Data.

PURPOSE: Nonadherence to dosing schedules for androgen deprivation therapy increases the risk of testosterone escape for patients with prostate cancer. Two approved formulations of leuprolide acetate, the most commonly prescribed androgen deprivation therapy in the United States, use different extended release delivery technologies: an in situ gel and microspheres. We evaluated the prevalence and impact of late dosing on testosterone suppression for gel and microsphere formulations of leuprolide acetate. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed records of patients with prostate cancer treated with gel or microsphere delivery of leuprolide acetate. Analyses used 2 definitions of "month," "28-day" (late dosing after day 28, 84, 112 or 168) and "extended" (late dosing after day 32, 97, 128 and 194). Frequencies of late dosing and associated testosterone values were calculated. RESULTS: A total of 2,038 patients received gel and 8,360 received microsphere formulations of leuprolide acetate. More than 80% and 27% of injections were late for 28-day and extended month, respectively. For 28-day month late injections 10% (gel delivery) and 14% (microsphere delivery) of testosterone values were above 50 ng/dl, and 25% (gel) vs 33% (microsphere) were above 20 ng/dl. For extended month 18% (gel) vs 25% (microsphere) were above 50 ng/dl, and 34% (gel) vs 44% (microsphere) were above 20 ng/dl. Microsphere leuprolide acetate was 1.5 times more likely to have testosterone above 50/20 ng/dl vs gel. Least square mean testosterone was 34 ng/dl (gel) vs 46 ng/dl (microsphere) for 28-day month, and 48 ng/dl (gel) vs 76 ng/dl (microsphere) for extended month. CONCLUSIONS: Leuprolide acetate therapies were frequently administered late. Gel formulation demonstrated higher rates of testosterone 50 ng/dl or less and 20 ng/dl or less than microsphere formulation. Optimal testosterone suppression can impact prostate cancer progression and patient survival, and differences in extended release technology for androgen deprivation therapy appear relevant.

The Impact of Late Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone Agonist Dosing on Testosterone Suppression in Patients with Prostate Cancer: An Analysis of United States Clinical Data.

PURPOSE: We evaluated the timeliness of androgen deprivation therapy dosing, the impact of dosing nonadherence on testosterone, and the frequency of testosterone and prostate specific antigen testing in patients with prostate cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed the records of 22,860 patients with prostate cancer treated with luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonists. Analyses were done using 2 definitions of month, including a 28-day month (late dosing after day 28, 84, 112 or 168) and an extended month (late after day 32, 97, 128 or 194) for 1, 3, 4 and 6-month formulations, respectively. The prevalence of late dosing, associated testosterone values, and the frequency of testosterone and prostate specific antigen testing were assessed. Statistical significance was assessed with the unpaired t-test. RESULTS: Of the injections 84% and 27% were late for the 28-day and extended month analyses, respectively. For the 28-day month 60% and 29% of injections were late by more than 1 and more than 2 weeks, respectively. Of testosterone values 4% were greater than 50 ng/dl for early/on time injections using both definitions, and 15% and 27% were greater than 50 ng/dl when late, and for the 28-day month and the extended month, respectively. For early/on time vs late injections 22% vs 31% of testosterone values were greater than 20 ng/dl for the 28-day month and 21% vs 43% for the extended month. Mean testosterone was higher when late (49 ng/dl for 28-day month, 79 ng/dl for extended month) vs early/on time (both 21 ng/dl). Of the injections prostate specific antigen measurements were performed in 83% and testosterone assessment was done in only 13%. CONCLUSIONS: Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonists were frequently (84%) administered later than the schedules used in pivotal trials. Nearly half of the late testosterone values for the extended month were greater than 20 ng/dl and mean testosterone was almost double the castration level. Elevated testosterone remained unidentified with infrequent testing.

Bladder Cancer, Version 3.2020, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology.

This selection from the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guidelines) for Bladder Cancer focuses on the clinical presentation and workup of suspected bladder cancer, treatment of non-muscle-invasive urothelial bladder cancer, and treatment of metastatic urothelial bladder cancer because important updates have recently been made to these sections. Some important updates include recommendations for optimal treatment of non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer in the event of a bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) shortage and details about biomarker testing for advanced or metastatic disease. The systemic therapy recommendations for second-line or subsequent therapies have also been revised. Treatment and management of muscle-invasive, nonmetastatic disease is covered in the complete version of the NCCN Guidelines for Bladder Cancer available at NCCN.org. Additional topics covered in the complete version include treatment of nonurothelial histologies and recommendations for nonbladder urinary tract cancers such as upper tract urothelial carcinoma, urothelial carcinoma of the prostate, and primary carcinoma of the urethra.

Germline genetics in localized prostate cancer.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: To provide the reader an understanding of the importance and limitations of prostate cancer (PCa) screening, the heritable component of PCa and the role that germline genetic markers can play in risk-adapted screening and treatment. RECENT FINDINGS: Despite strong science supporting the association of germline genetic change with PCa risk and outcome, there has been a reluctance to pursue practical application of these technologies. Recent findings suggest that actionable information may now be garnered from this form of testing, which can help men at risk for and with PCa. SUMMARY: This is an exciting time whereby germline genetic markers can help overcome some of the shortcomings of current PCa screening and treatment paradigms. Understanding their benefit and limitations while keeping the patient's best interest in mind will be the key for the responsible application of these exciting technologies.

NCCN Guidelines Insights: Bladder Cancer, Version 5.2018.

The NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology for Bladder Cancer provide recommendations for the diagnosis, evaluation, treatment, and follow-up of patients with bladder cancer. These NCCN Guidelines Insights discuss important updates to the 2018 version of the guidelines, including implications of the 8th edition of the AJCC Cancer Staging Manual on treatment of muscle-invasive bladder cancer and incorporating newly approved immune checkpoint inhibitor therapies into treatment options for patients with locally advanced or metastatic disease.

Bladder Cancer, Version 5.2017, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology.

This selection from the NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guidelines) for Bladder Cancer focuses on systemic therapy for muscle-invasive urothelial bladder cancer, as substantial revisions were made in the 2017 updates, such as new recommendations for nivolumab, pembrolizumab, atezolizumab, durvalumab, and avelumab. The complete version of the NCCN Guidelines for Bladder Cancer addresses additional aspects of the management of bladder cancer, including non-muscle-invasive urothelial bladder cancer and nonurothelial histologies, as well as staging, evaluation, and follow-up.

Adding genetic risk score to family history identifies twice as many high-risk men for prostate cancer: Results from the prostate cancer prevention trial.

BACKGROUND: While family history (FH) has been widely used to provide risk information, it captures only a small proportion of subjects with higher genetic susceptibility. Our objective is to assess whether a genetic risk score (GRS) calculated from prostate cancer (PCa) risk-associated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) can supplement FH for more effective risk stratification for PCa screening decision-making. METHODS: A GRS was calculated based on 29 PCa risk-associated SNPs for 4,528 men of European descent in the placebo arm of the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial (PCPT). At study entry, participants were free of PCa diagnosis. Performance of FH and GRS were measured by observed detection rate of PCa and high-grade PCa (Gleason score ≥7) during the 7-year study. RESULTS: GRS was a significant predictor of PCa in men with or without a positive FH (P = 1.18 × 10(-4) and P = 4.50 × 10(-16) , respectively). Using FH alone, as expected, the 17% of men who were FH+ had a PCa detection rate that was significantly higher (29.02%) than FH- men (23.43%, P = 0.001). When both FH+ or GRS >1.4 are considered, more than twice as many men (36%) can be classified as higher risk, as evidenced by a significantly higher PCa detection rate (30.98%) than in the remaining men (20.61%, P = 5.30 × 10(-15) ). If targeting only FH+ men, four out of five PCa cases would go undetected, as would a similarly large fraction (∼80%) of high-grade PCa cases. In comparison, if targeting FH+ or GRS >1.4 men, almost half of all PCa cases would be detected, including 45% of high-grade PCa cases. CONCLUSIONS: A prostate cancer GRS can supplement family history to better identify higher risk men for targeted intervention. Prostate 76:1120-1129, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Randomized trial finds that prostate cancer genetic risk score feedback targets prostate-specific antigen screening among at-risk men.

BACKGROUND: Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening may reduce death due to prostate cancer but leads to the overdiagnosis of many cases of indolent cancer. Targeted use of PSA screening may reduce overdiagnosis. Multimarker genomic testing shows promise for risk assessment and could be used to target PSA screening. METHODS: To test whether counseling based on the family history (FH) and counseling based on a genetic risk score (GRS) plus FH would differentially affect subsequent PSA screening at 3 months (primary outcome), a randomized trial of FH versus GRS plus FH was conducted with 700 whites aged 40 to 49 years without prior PSA screening. Secondary outcomes included anxiety, recall, physician discussion at 3 months, and PSA screening at 3 years. Pictographs versus numeric presentations of genetic risk were also evaluated. RESULTS: At 3 months, no significant differences were observed in the rates of PSA screening between the FH arm (2.1%) and the GRS-FH arm (4.5% with GRS-FH vs. 2.1% with FH: χ2 = 3.13, P = .077); however, PSA screening rates at 3 months significantly increased with given risk in the GRS-FH arm (P = .013). Similar results were observed for discussions with physicians at 3 months and PSA screening at 3 years. Average anxiety levels decreased after the individual cancer risk was provided (P = .0007), with no differences between groups. Visual presentation by pictographs did not significantly alter comprehension or anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: This is likely the first randomized trial of multimarker genomic testing to report genomic targeting of cancer screening. This study found little evidence of concern about excess anxiety or overuse/underuse of PSA screening when multimarker genetic risks were provided to patients. Cancer 2016;122:3564-3575. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

NCCN Guidelines Insights: Bladder Cancer, Version 2.2016.

These NCCN Guidelines Insights discuss the major recent updates to the NCCN Guidelines for Bladder Cancer based on the review of the evidence in conjunction with the expert opinion of the panel. Recent updates include (1) refining the recommendation of intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guérin, (2) strengthening the recommendations for perioperative systemic chemotherapy, and (3) incorporating immunotherapy into second-line therapy for locally advanced or metastatic disease. These NCCN Guidelines Insights further discuss factors that affect integration of these recommendations into clinical practice.

Prostate genetic score (PGS-33) is independently associated with risk of prostate cancer in the PLCO trial.

BACKGROUND: To investigate the ability of the prostate genetic score (PGS-33), a germ-line biomarker of prostate cancer (PCa) risk, to categorize men participating in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial. METHODS: We obtained the genetic data from the Cancer Genetic Markers of Susceptibility (CGEMS), a nested case control study examining germ-line DNA in the screened arm of the PLCO trial. A PGS-33 was calculated based on their genotype at 33 PCa associated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The primary outcome was the diagnosis of PCa and primary predictor was PGS-33. RESULTS: We identified 2,244 subjects (no cancer, N = 1017) and cases (N = 1227). The PGS-33 (P<0.001), prostate specific antigen (PSA; P < 0.001), family history of PCa (< 0.001), abnormal digital rectal exam (DRE, P < 0.001), and history of ever smoking (P = 0.037) were associated with a PCa diagnosis. In multivariable analysis, the log (PGS-33) was associated with PCa diagnosis with an odds ratio of 1.68 (95% CI 1.36-2.08, P < 0.001), log (PSA) (OR 8.2; 95% CI 6.75-10.04, P < 0.001), and family history of PCa (OR 2.01; 95% CI 1.26-3.20, P = 0.003). PGS-33 quartiles noted an increasing rate of PCa detection in addition to PSA: 43.2% (Q1), 47.8% (Q2), 58.8% (Q3), and 69.4 (Q4) (P < 0.001) and improvement in PSA performance (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Germ-line DNA in the form of the PGS-33 is able to risk stratify men regarding their risk of PCa. The PGS-33 may have implications regarding who may benefit most from PCa screening and possibly add to PSA performance.

Impact of family history on prostate cancer mortality in white men undergoing prostate specific antigen based screening.

PURPOSE: We assessed whether prostate cancer screening would decrease prostate cancer mortality in white men with a family history of prostate cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data from the PLCO cancer screening trial were used to compare the screening and usual care arms in the subset of men with and without a family history of prostate cancer. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analysis, and log rank analysis of Kaplan-Meier curves were done to examine the data for differences in prostate cancer specific survival. RESULTS: A total of 65,179 white subjects were included in the prostate specific antigen screening trial, of whom 7,314 (11.2%) were diagnosed with prostate cancer. Only 4,833 white men (7.4%) had a family history of prostate cancer. Those with a positive family history had a significantly higher incidence of prostate cancer (16.9% vs 10.8%) and higher prostate cancer specific mortality (0.56% vs 0.37%, each p <0.01). On multivariate analysis this trended toward significance (HR 1.47, 95% CI 0.98-2.21, p = 0.06). Screening in men with a positive family history also showed a trend toward decreased prostate cancer specific mortality (HR 0.49, 95% CI 0.22-1.1, p = 0.08) and decreased time to death from prostate cancer (log rank p = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: White men with a family history of prostate cancer are at increased risk for being diagnosed with and subsequently dying of prostate cancer. Yearly digital rectal examination and prostate specific antigen testing may decrease prostate cancer death in these individuals.

Sentinel lymph node biopsy in bladder cancer: Systematic review and technology update.

A sentinel lymph node (SLN) is the first lymph node to drain a solid tumor and likely the first place metastasis will travel. SLN biopsy has been well established as a staging tool for melanoma and breast cancer to guide lymph node dissection (LND); its utility in bladder cancer is debated. We performed a systematic search of PubMed for both human and animal studies that looked at SLN detection in cases of urothelial carcinoma of the bladder. We identified a total of nine studies that assessed a variety of imaging techniques to identify SLNs in patients with urothelial carcinoma of the bladder. Eight studies investigated human patients while one looked at animal (dog) models. Seven studies representing 156 patients noted the negative predictive value of the SLN to predict a metastasis free state was 92% (92/100). The SLN biopsy was less accurate in metastatic patients with a positive predictive value of only 77% (43/56) with a false negative range of in individual studies of 0-19%. Clinically, positive nodes routinely do not take up the pharmaceutical agent for SLN. Therefore, SLN biopsy is a promising concept with a 92% negative predictive value; however, the false negative rates are high which may be improved by standardizing populations and indications. Novel technologies are improving the detection of SLN and may provide the surgeon with an improved ability to detect micrometastasis, guide surgery, and reduce patient morbidity.

Primary mucin-producing urothelial-type adenocarcinoma of the prostatic urethra diagnosed on TURP: a case report and review of literature.

BACKGROUND: Mucin-producing urothelial-type adenocarcinoma of the prostatic urethra is extremely rare. These lesions must be differentiated from other mucinous tumors including mucin-producing prostatic adenocarcinoma and metastases from either colonic or bladder primaries. CASE PRESENTATION: We report here a case of urothelial-type adenocarcinoma arising from the prostatic urethra. The patient is an 81 year-old man with a history of pT1 urothelial cell carcinoma of the bladder status post trans-urethral resection of bladder tumor (TURBT) who initially presented with irritative lower urinary tract symptoms and mucosuria refractory to Flomax and finasteride. A shared decision was made for the patient to undergo trans-urethral resection of prostate (TURP). At the time of surgery, a papillary tumor emanating from the prostatic urethra was found and no urothelial lesions were noted in the bladder. Pathology of the resected prostatic chips revealed an invasive adenocarcinoma with intestinal-type differentiation that stained positive for CK7, CK20, and villin, but negative for PSA, PSAP, uroplakin, and CDX-2. Colonoscopy was normal and CT scan did not show any evidence of colonic lesions nor visceral or lymph node metastases. Thus, the patient was diagnosed with a primary urothelial-type adenocarcinoma of the prostatic urethra. CONCLUSION: Herein we review the literature regarding this unusual entity, and discuss the differential diagnosis, immunohistochemistry, and the importance of correctly identifying this rare tumor.

Germline genetic testing for prostate cancer: Ordering trends in the era of expanded hereditary cancer screening recommendations.

PURPOSE: The availability of targeted therapies for advanced prostate cancer led to the expansion of national guidelines recommending germline genetic testing. The aim of this study was to describe recent trends in germline test ordering patterns for patients with prostate cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective cohort analysis of patients with prostate cancer who underwent germline testing through a single commercial laboratory (Invitae Corporation) between 2015-2020 was performed. Ordering trends between provider medical specialties were compared. Our primary hypothesis was that the proportion of tests ordered by urologists would increase over time. RESULTS: In total, 17,256 prostate cancer patients underwent germline genetic testing; 14,400 patients had an ordering provider with an associated medical specialty and were included in the final comparison cohort. Total prostate cancer patients undergoing germline testing increased quarterly from 21 in Q2 of 2015 to 1,509 in Q3 of 2020. The proportion of tests ordered by urologists increased from 0% in Q2 2015 to 8.3% in Q3 2020 (P < 0.001). Compared to medical genetics, medical oncology, and other specialties, urology ordered more tests for patients under 70 years old (66% vs 51%-55%, P <0.004) and for patients who reported negative family history (25% vs 12%-20%, P = 0.012). CONCLUSIONS: As awareness and indications for germline testing continue to expand, aggregate ordering volume is increasing, and urologists are becoming more involved in facilitating testing. This highlights the continued importance of educating urologists on the indications for and implications of germline genetic testing, as well as providing tools to support implementation.

A comparison of Bayesian and frequentist approaches to incorporating external information for the prediction of prostate cancer risk.

We present the most comprehensive comparison to date of the predictive benefit of genetics in addition to currently used clinical variables, using genotype data for 33 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 1,547 Caucasian men from the placebo arm of the REduction by DUtasteride of prostate Cancer Events (REDUCE®) trial. Moreover, we conducted a detailed comparison of three techniques for incorporating genetics into clinical risk prediction. The first method was a standard logistic regression model, which included separate terms for the clinical covariates and for each of the genetic markers. This approach ignores a substantial amount of external information concerning effect sizes for these Genome Wide Association Study (GWAS)-replicated SNPs. The second and third methods investigated two possible approaches to incorporating meta-analysed external SNP effect estimates - one via a weighted PCa 'risk' score based solely on the meta analysis estimates, and the other incorporating both the current and prior data via informative priors in a Bayesian logistic regression model. All methods demonstrated a slight improvement in predictive performance upon incorporation of genetics. The two methods that incorporated external information showed the greatest receiver-operating-characteristic AUCs increase from 0.61 to 0.64. The value of our methods comparison is likely to lie in observations of performance similarities, rather than difference, between three approaches of very different resource requirements. The two methods that included external information performed best, but only marginally despite substantial differences in complexity.