Antiarthritic and Antinociceptive Properties of Ylang-Ylang (Cananga odorata) Essential Oil in Experimental Models.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) essential oil (YEO) on models of experimental arthritis, persistent inflammation, and nociception in mice. YEO treatment at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg reduced the infiltration of leukocytes into the joint cavities of mice submitted to zymosan-induced arthritis 6 h and 7 days after arthritis induction. At these doses, YEO treatment reduced the formation of joint edema 4 and 6 h after arthritis induction, and at a dose of 200 mg/kg, YEO treatment reduced mechanical hyperalgesia 3 and 4 h after arthritis induction. At the dose of 200 mg/kg, YEO treatment reduced interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels and cartilage destruction in the zymosan-induced arthritis model, and reduced edema formation and mechanical hyperalgesia in the model of persistent inflammation (21 days) induced by complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) in mice. YEO treatment at a dose of 200 mg/kg reduced the nociceptive response in experimental models of nociception induced by acetic acid and formalin. The YEO treatment reduced inflammatory parameters in the experimental arthritis model, and presented antiarthritic, anti-hyperalgesic, antinociceptive, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Safety evaluation of ondansetron after gestational exposure on male reproductive parameters in rats.

Ondansetron is a 5HT3 receptor antagonist widely used to treat hyperemesis gravidarum, although its safety is still questionable. Since 5HT3 receptors, which are the target of this drug, can interfere with brain development through changes in neurotransmitter levels, this study evaluated whether the prenatal exposure to this drug could compromise reproductive and behavioral parameters in male offspring. Pregnant rats were treated with ondansetron (1.7 and 2.5 mg/kg/body weight; gavage), from gestational day 1-21. No exposure-related changes in clinical signs, body weight, food consumption, pregnancy length, and necropsy findings were observed in dams. Ondansetron exposure did not alter the anogenital distance or age of preputial separation in male offspring. Similarly, males exposed to therapeutic doses of ondansetron did not exhibit changes in play behavior. In adulthood, there were no changes in sperm parameters, as well as in testosterone level, sexual behavior and fertility. Furthermore, ondansetron did not interfere with testicular and epididymal histology, and with androgen receptor expression in hypothalamus. In conclusion, prenatal exposure to ondansetron did not cause maternal toxicity, as well as did not interfere with reproductive parameters of male offspring, indicating its safety after gestational exposure in rats.

3-Heptylidene-4,6-Dimethoxy-3H-Isobenzofuran-1-One Is Genotoxic, Increases the Frequency of Cell Death, and Potentiates the Effects of Cyclophosphamide and Cisplatin.

3-heptylidene-4,6-dimethoxy-3H-isobenzofuran-1-one (Phthalide 1) is the precursor of three resorcinol lipids that have been described as potential chemotherapeutic agents and capable of potentiating the effects of cyclophosphamide. In this study, we evaluated the genotoxic potential, cell-killing potential, and interactions with cyclophosphamide and cisplatin of phthalide 1. Twelve groups were created from 120 mice: Negative Control, cyclophosphamide (100 mg/kg), cisplatin (6 mg/kg), Phthalide 1 (5, 10 and 20 mg/kg), and associations of 1 with cyclophosphamide and 1 with cisplatin. The results demonstrate that 1 increases (p < 0.05) the frequency of chromosomal damage, liver and kidney cell death, and splenic phagocytosis. The association of 1 with cyclophosphamide and cisplatin demonstrated a chemopreventive effect and, therefore, a reduction (p < 0.05) in the frequency of chromosomal damage. However, cell death and splenic phagocytosis did not suffer significant variations. As a result of the above, 1 has potential chemotherapeutic application and may be a candidate for developing a new generation of chemotherapeutics. In addition, it has characteristics to be used as a chemotherapy adjuvant in association with cyclophosphamide and cisplatin since it increases the frequency of cell death induced by chemotherapy. We also reported that the chemopreventive effect of 1, in association with cyclophosphamide and cisplatin, can prevent adverse effects (induction of DNA damage in non-tumor cells) without interfering with the mode of action of chemotherapy drugs and, therefore, without reducing the induction of cell death.

Contribution of spathulenol to the anti-nociceptive effects of Psidium guineense.

Objectives: Araçá-verdadeiro is the popular name of Psidium guineense (Myrtaceae), whose fruits and leaves are used in Brazilian folk medicine for treatment of inflammation and pain. The focus of the present research was an investigation of the anti-nociceptive, and anti-inflammatory effects of the essential oil from P. guineense (EOPG) leaves, and of spathulenol. The anxiolytic and antidepressive effects associated with chronic pain were also investigated in models of acute or persistent nociception or/and inflammatory pain.Methods and Results: Oral treatment with EOPG (10-100 mg/kg) or spathulenol (10 mg/kg) significantly inhibited formalin-induced nociceptive responses, both sensitivity to cold and edema. Oral treatment with EOPG (10 mg/kg) and spathulenol (10 mg/kg) did not reduce locomotor activity (open field test). Local administration of spathulenol (1000 µg/paw) significantly prevented formalin-induced nociceptive sensitivity to cold and paw edema, and carrageenan-induced mechanical hyperalgesia, paw edema and sensitivity to cold. In the Freund's complete adjuvant (CFA) model, oral treatment with EOPG (10 mg/kg) or spathulenol (10 mg/kg) for 21 days significantly inhibited all analyzed parameters. The percentage maximal inhibition by spathulenol was 76.00% (mechanical hyperalgesia), 71.90% (cold response), 85.00% (edema), 77.16% (myeloperoxidase activity), 97.72% (time in the closed arms in the elevated plus maze), and 49.00% (immobility time in the tail suspension test), in the CFA model. Models employed male Swiss mice, except for the CFA test, which employed C57bL6 male mice (n=6 /group).Conclusion: This study demonstrates that EOPG is an anti-nociceptive and anti-hyperalgesic agent, in acute and continuous treatment, and an anxiolytic and antidepressive agent when tested with the chronic pain experimental state.

The NO-cGMP-K+ Channel Pathway Participates in Diuretic and Cardioprotective Effects of Blutaparon portulacoides in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats.

Blutaparon portulacoides is a Brazilian plant species that is widely used in folk medicine. The present study investigated the role of an aqueous extract of B. portulacoides against hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats. The aqueous extract of B. portulacoides was obtained from the whole plant. Its chemical profile was analyzed by ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The acute toxicity of the aqueous extract of B. portulacoides was evaluated in female Wistar rats. Male 6-month-old spontaneously hypertensive rats then received the aqueous extract of B. portulacoides (30, 100, and 300 mg/kg), hydrochlorothiazide (25 mg/kg), or vehicle once daily for 28 days. On days 1, 14, and 28, the diuretic effects of the aqueous extract of B. portulacoides were evaluated. The role of prostaglandins and the nitric oxide-cyclic guanosine monophosphate-potassium channel pathway in the diuretic activity of the aqueous extract of B. portulacoides was also investigated. At the end of the treatment, hepatic and renal biochemical markers, serum nitrotyrosine, malondialdehyde, nitrite, and aldosterone levels, and angiotensin-converting enzyme activity were measured. The electrocardiographic profile, blood pressure, and renal vascular reactivity were also assessed. The heart, kidneys, and liver were collected to determine relative organ weight, histopathology, and cardiac morphometry. Caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and several flavonoids were identified in the aqueous extract of B. portulacoides. No signs of toxicity were observed. Prolonged treatment with the aqueous extract of B. portulacoides (300 mg/kg) induced significant diuretic activity by activating the nitric oxide-cyclic guanosine monophosphate-potassium channel pathway. These effects reduced blood pressure and oxidative stress and prevented renal vascular dysfunction and left ventricular hypertrophy that was induced by hypertension. Overall, the present data suggest that the aqueous extract of B. portulacoides has important diuretic and cardioprotective effects by activation of the nitric oxide-cyclic guanosine monophosphate-potassium channel pathway.

Preclinical safety evaluation of the ethanolic extract from the aerial parts of Gomphrena celosioides Mart. in rodents.

The toxicological potential of the ethanolic extract from Gomphrena celosioides (EEGC), a medicinal plant used as a natural analgesic, was investigated in acute and subacute toxicity models in rodents. For the acute toxicity test, 2000 mg/kg of EEGC was administered orally to male and female Wistar rats, while Swiss mice received 75, 150 or 300 mg/kg of EEGC for the subacute toxicity test. Animals treated with an only dose of 2000 mg/kg EEGC showed no clinical signs of toxicity, indicating that the LD50 is higher than this dose. The repeated treatment with EEGC did not cause adverse clinical signs, or lesions in target tissues. According to the Globally Harmonized System of classification, the EEGC dosages can be in Category 5 which is the least toxic or non-toxic one.

Evaluation of the safety of ethanolic extract from Piper amalago L. (Piperaceae) leaves in vivo: Subacute toxicity and genotoxicity studies.

Piper amalago L. (Piperaceae) is traditionally used due to its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, diuretic, and antiparasitic properties. However, few studies have focused on its adverse effects, compromising its safe use. This study evaluated the toxicological safety of ethanolic extract from Piper amalago leaves (EEPA), through subacute toxicity and genotoxicity assays in rodents. In subacute toxicity, 100, 200 or 300 mg/kg of EEPA were tested in female Wistar rats, by gavage, for 28 days. For genotoxicity test, female Swiss mice were orally treated with 17.5, 175 or 1750 mg/kg of EEPA and the comet, micronucleus, and splenic phagocytic assays were evaluated. In subacute toxicity, the extract induced an increase in the food and water intakes, as well as in the liver absolute weight, and in the heart and kidney relative weights. EEPA also provoked alterations in histopathological analysis of liver and in hemato-biochemical parameters, evidenced by a decrease in hematocrit levels and albumin levels, and an increase in the number of platelets and in alkaline phosphatase and cholesterol levels. However, EEPA did not presented genotoxic nor mutagenic properties. EEPA showed hemato-biochemical toxicity profile in rats and should be used with caution, especially when for prolonged period.

Toxicological evaluation of ethanolic extract of leaves from Doliocarpus dentatus in Swiss mice.

Doliocarpus dentatus (Dilleniaceae) has been used in folk medicine to treat inflammation and pain; however, studies evaluating its toxicity potential, as well as its effects on anxiety and depression, are scarce. This study investigated the toxicological profile of an ethanolic extract from leaves of D. dentatus (EEDd), and its effects on anxiety and depression models in mice. Male and female mice received either a single dose (500, 1000 or 2000 mg/kg) or repeated doses (75, 150 or 300 mg/kg) of EEDd by oral gavage. During the subacute toxicity assay, behavioral tests were performed on days 4, 14, 21 and 28. No evidence of toxicity was observed in the animals in both acute and subacute tests. However, males treated with the highest dose presented a reduction in the absolute weight of the kidney, an elevation in the AST levels, in addition to an alteration in the urea levels. The treatment did not affect other biochemical parameters, and did not induce any depressive-like behavior. EEDd exhibited low toxicity after single and repeated exposures. Since some analyzed parameters were compromised, further toxicity studies should be carried out.

Effect of Ylang-Ylang (Cananga odorata Hook. F. & Thomson) Essential Oil on Acute Inflammatory Response In Vitro and In Vivo.

The aim of this study is to evaluate the phytochemical profile, oral acute toxicity, and the effect of ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata Hook. F. & Thomson) essential oil (YEO) on acute inflammation. YEO was analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. For in vitro tests, YEO was assessed using cytotoxicity, neutrophil chemotaxis induced by N-formyl methionyl leucyl phenylalanine (fMLP), and phagocytic activity tests. YEO was orally administered in zymosan-induced peritonitis, carrageenan-induced leukocyte rolling, and adhesion events in the in situ microcirculation model and in carrageenan-induced paw edema models. YEO (2000 mg/kg) was also tested using an acute toxicity test in Swiss mice. YEO showed a predominance of benzyl acetate, linalool, benzyl benzoate, and methyl benzoate. YEO did not present in vitro cytotoxicity. YEO reduced the in vitro neutrophil chemotaxis induced by fMLP and reduced the phagocytic activity. The oral treatment with YEO reduced the leukocyte recruitment and nitric oxide production in the zymosan-induced peritonitis model, reduced rolling and adherent leukocyte number induced by carrageenan in the in situ microcirculation model, and reduced carrageenan-induced edema and mechanical hyperalgesia. YEO did not present signs of toxicity in the acute toxicity test. In conclusion, YEO affected the leukocyte activation, and presented antiedematogenic, anti-hyperalgesic, and anti-inflammatory properties.

Blutaparon portulacoides ethanolic extract reduced IL-1ß and inflammatory parameters induced by the Mycobacterium complex and carrageenan in mice.

Information on the health benefits of ethanolic extracts obtained from Blutaparon portulacoides stem (EEBP) hasn´t been consistently described in the literature until the present moment. This study investigated the antimycobacterial, anti-inflammatory and toxicological effects of EEBP in models of inflammation/infection, as well as its chemical composition. Chemical analysis of EEBP by electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry/HPLC-MS/MS identified 3,5,3'-Trihydroxy-4'-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxy-flavone, gomphrenol, ferulic, vanillic, and caffeic acids. The minimum inhibitory concentration of EEBP and isoniazid in the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis was 123.4 and 0.030 µg/ml, respectively. EEBP oral administration (p.o.) (300-1000 mg/kg) or dexamethasone subcutaneous injection (s.c.) (1 mg/kg) significantly inhibited leukocytes and proteins resulting from carrageenan-induced pleurisy in Swiss mice. In the BCG-induced pleurisy model, the oral treatments performed once a day for 7 days, with EEBP (30 and 100 mg/kg) and isoniazid (25 mg/kg), inhibited the increase in plasmatic IL-1ß levels and in pleural exudate from C57BL-6 mice, and reduced M. tuberculosis growth in organs (colony forming units assays). EEBP (30-300 mg/kg, p.o.) and dexamethasone (1 mg/s.c.) significantly prevented carrageenan-induced oedema and mechanical hyperalgesia in Swiss mice. The treatments (once a day for 22 days) with EEBP (30 mg/kg, p.o.) and dexamethasone (1 mg/s.c.) substantially inhibited oedema and mechanical- and cold-hyperalgesia at 11, 16 and 22 days after the administration of Freund's Complete Adjuvant in C57bL6 mice. No evidence of physio-pathologic was observed in Wistar rats acutely treated with EEBP (2000 mg/kg, p.o.). This study confirms the anti-inflammatory and antibiotic properties of EEBP, opening possibilities for the development of safe new drugs with dual anti-inflammatory/antimycobacterial activities which could be favorable from a pharmacoeconomic perspective.

Antimicrobial activity of plant extracts against carbapenem-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae and in vivo toxicological assessment.

The global spread of multidrug-resistant strains has prompted the scientific community to explore novel sources of chemicals with antimicrobial activity. The aim of the study was to examine the antimicrobial activity in vitro of 28 extracts against carbapenem-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae, individually and in combination with antibiotics and in vivo toxicological assessment of the most active product. The multi-resistant K. pneumoniae strain was submitted for phenotypic and molecular characterization. The antibacterial activity of 28 plant extracts was evaluated alone and in combination with antibiotics against this strain through the agar disk diffusion. Of these, 16 extracts showed synergism against carbapenem-producing K. pneumoniae, being that B. crassifolia extract exhibited synergism with three antibiotics. Based on this assessment, B. crassifolia-extract-induced toxicity on Swiss male mice was evaluated by administering this extract and subsequently determining apoptosis and splenic phagocytosis using the comet and micronucleus assays. The results of this study showed that B. crassifolia extract had synergistic activity promising and groups treated with B. crassifolia exhibited no genotoxic or mutagenic activity, indicating that B. crassifolia extract exerted beneficial effects and appeared safe to use at the studied concentrations.

Effects of exposure to ethanolic extract from Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) D.C. flowers on reproductive and developmental parameters in Wistar rats.

Achyrocline satureioides (LAM) D.C. is a species plant used in folk medicine with several medicinal properties; however, few studies have focused on its potential adverse effects. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of ethanolic extract of A. satureioides flowers administered during pre-mating, mating, pregnancy and postpartum period on reproductive and developmental parameters in rats. Male and female rats received by gavage 0, 250, 500 or 750 mg/kg of extract. The animals were treated from pre-mating until 13 days post-partum. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of important flavonoids (quercetin, luteolin, caffeic acid, rutin, and ferulic acid). In females, biochemical, hematological or gestational parameters were not markedly altered by the extract. However, an increase in calcium and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels was found in treated-dams. Although TSH and T4 levels were not significantly altered in pups, there was a rise in body weight of pups whose mothers were treated with the extract. All males treated were able to successfully copulate with treated-females. However, rats exposed to 500 and 750 mg/kg of extract exhibited a significant decrease in daily testicular sperm production and delay in sperm transit time in the epididymis. The ethanolic extract of A. satureioides flowers produced adverse effects in the male reproductive system as evidenced by diminished sperm production and transport. In addition, the extract elevated TSH levels of exposed mothers which may consequently affect the development of pups but this requires further evaluation.

Safety evaluation of the oils extracted from edible insects (Tenebrio molitor and Pachymerus nucleorum) as novel food for humans.

Increased concerns about ensuring food safety motivated the exploration of insects as an alternative protein source. It has been reported that Tenebrio molitor (TM) and Pachymerus nucleorum (PN) larvae are great protein and lipid sources with considerable concentrations of unsaturated fatty acids. Nevertheless, little attention has been given to the safety of using these edible insects. This study presents the acute and subacute (28 days) toxicological profile of the oil extracted from TM and PN larvae. The TM and PN larvae have all essential amino acids and the oils extracted from them fostered a considerable reduction in cholesterol and glucose levels of the treated rats. The experiments suggested that the TM and PN oils have low toxicity since it did not cause any lethality as well as no changes in hematological parameters.

Heart-Protective Effects of Echinodorus grandiflorus in Rabbits That Are Fed a High-cholesterol Diet.

Excess weight and dyslipidemia are among the most serious health problems in Western societies. These conditions enhance the risk of cardiac disease and have been linked with a higher prevalence of cardiac arrhythmias and sudden death. The present study investigated the cardioprotective effects of Echinodorus grandiflorus on ventricular remodeling in rabbits that were fed a 1% cholesterol-rich diet. We first obtained an ethanol-soluble fraction of E. grandiflorus and performed a detailed phytochemical study by liquid chromatography-DAD/ESI-MS. For 60 days, male rabbits were fed the cholesterol-rich diet or a diet without the addition of cholesterol. After 30 days, different groups of rabbits were treated with the ethanol-soluble fraction of E. grandiflorus (10, 30, and 100 mg/kg, p. o.), simvastatin (2.5 mg/kg), or vehicle once daily for 30 days. At the end of 60 days, the serum lipoprotein ratio, electrocardiographic profile, histopathological alterations, and the cardiac antioxidant defense system were investigated. Echocardiographic analysis showed morphological and functional alterations in cholesterol-rich diet-fed animals, indicating left ventricle hypertrophy. The total cholesterol/high-density lipoprotein ratio and low-density lipoprotein/high-density lipoprotein ratio were significantly higher in cholesterol-rich diet-fed rabbits. Myocardial flaccidity, fatty degeneration, and concentric left ventricular hypertrophy were observed. An increase in lipid peroxidation levels, a decrease in superoxide dismutase activity, and a decrease in reduced glutathione levels were observed in the myocardium of all cholesterol-rich diet-fed rabbits. Treatment with the ethanol-soluble fraction of E. grandiflorus, especially the highest dose, significantly reduced all of these alterations, thus demonstrating the cardioprotective effect of the ethanol-soluble fraction of E. grandiflorus on cardiac changes that are induced by a cholesterol-rich diet.

Genetic toxicological assessment and anti-arthritic effects of an ethanolic extract obtained from Salvia lachnostachys Benth leaves in mice.

In the present study, mice were subjected to prolonged treatment with ethanolic extract of Salvia lachnostachys Benth leaves (SLEE), and the inflammatory and arthritic parameters were evaluated using the Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) model. The genotoxicity of SLEE were also assayed using genetic toxicological tests. For the CFA model, 28 male C57BL/6 mice were distributed randomly into four groups (control, 50 mg/kg of SLEE, 100 mg/kg of SLEE and dexamethasone) for the evaluation of hyperalgesia and paw edema for 21 days after injection of CFA into the paw. To conduct the toxicogenetic assessments (comet assay and micronuclei assay), apoptosis and splenic phagocytosis were evaluated in male Swiss mice after the administration of saline (control group), cyclophosphamide (positive control group) and SLEE (10, 100 and 1000 mg/kg). SLEE significantly reduced the mechanical hyperalgesia and edema caused by CFA injection. The results of the toxicogenetic assessment revealed no toxicogenetic potential in the mice, and the evaluation of apoptosis showed an increase in apoptotic cells in the spleen after 72 h of treatment with SLEE (1000 mg/kg). SLEE exhibited anti-arthritic activity with no toxicogenetic damage. These toxicogenic results support the safety of SLEE.

In vivo chemotherapeutic insight of a novel isocoumarin (3-hexyl-5,7-dimethoxy-isochromen-1-one): Genotoxicity, cell death induction, leukometry and phagocytic evaluation.

Chemotherapy is one of the major approaches for the treatment of cancer. Therefore, the development of new chemotherapy drugs is an important aspect of medicinal chemistry. Chemotherapeutic agents include isocoumarins, which are privileged structures with potential antitumoral activity. Herein, a new 3-substituted isocoumarin was synthesized from 2-iodo-3,5-dimethoxy-benzoic acid and oct-1-yne in a cross-coupling Sonogashira reaction followed by a copper iodide-catalyzed intramolecular cyclization as key step using MeOH/Et3N as the solvent system. The present study also evaluated the leukometry, phagocytic activity, genotoxic potential and cell death induction of three different doses (5 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg) of this newly synthesized isocoumarin, alone and in combination with the commercial chemotherapeutic agents cyclophosphamide (100 mg/kg) and cisplatin (6 mg/kg) in male Swiss mice. The results suggest that the isocoumarin has genotoxicity and causes cell death. Noteworthy, this new compound can increase splenic phagocytosis and lymphocyte frequency, which are related to immunomodulatory activity. When combined with either cyclophosphamide or cisplatin, chemopreventive activity led to a reduction in the effects of both chemotherapeutic drugs. Thus, the new isocoumarin is not a candidate for chemotherapeutic adjuvant in treatments using cyclophosphamide or cisplatin. Nevertheless, the compound itself is an important prototype for the development of new antitumor drugs.

Subacute toxicity assessment of diflubenzuron, an insect growth regulator, in adult male rats.

Diflubenzuron (DFB), an insecticide and acaricide insect growth regulator, can be used in agriculture against insect predators and in public health programs, to control insects and vectors, mainly Aedes aegypti larvae. Due to the lack of toxicological assessments of this compound, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the toxicological effects of subacute exposure to the DFB insecticide in adult male rats. Adult male rats were exposed (gavage) to 0, 2, 4, or 8 mg/kg of DFB for 28 days. No clinical signs of toxicity were observed in the DFB-treated animals of the experimental groups. However, there was an increase in serum levels of alanine aminotransferase in the group that received 8 mg/kg/DFB/day and urea at doses of 4 and 8 mg/kg/DFB/day, without altering other biochemical or hematological parameters. The subacute exposure to the lowest dose of DFB caused significant decrease in testis weight, daily sperm production, and in number of sperm in the epididymis in relation to the control group. However, no alterations were observed in the sperm morphology, testicular, epididymis, liver and kidney histology, or testosterone levels. These findings unveiled the hazardous effects of DFB on male reproduction after the subacute exposure and special attention should be addressed to the effects of low doses of this pesticide.

Analysis of the anti-inflammatory and chemopreventive potential and description of the antimutagenic mode of action of the Annona crassiflora methanolic extract.

CONTEXT: Annona crassiflora Mart. (Annonaceae) is a medicinal plant that is widely used in folk medicine, which leads to its investigation as a potential source of new pharmacological principles. OBJECTIVE: This study describes the anti-inflammatory, antiallodynic, and antimutagenic/chemopreventive activities of the leaves A. crassiflora methanolic extract. Its antimutagenic mode of action was analyzed in a plant or animal experimental model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Total flavonoids were quantified by spectrophotometry at 415 nm and its composition was analyzed by (1)H NMR spectra. Animals received orally, 30, 100, and 300 mg/kg of extract in both tests, carrageenan-induced paw edema and myeloperoxidase activity. Animals were treated with 100 and 300 mg/kg, in all the analyzed tests, pleural cell migration and protein exudation, carrageenan-induced cell migration into the pouch, induction of joint inflammation and carrageenan-induced allodynia response in the mouse paw. To evaluate the antimutagenic/chemopreventive activity through the Allium cepa test, we used 5, 10, and 15 mg/L of extract, and for the micronucleus test in the peripheral blood, we used the dose of 15 mg/kg. RESULTS: The fractionation of the ethyl acetate (EA) fraction, resulting from the partition of the methanol extract of the A. crassiflora, afforded through chromatographic methods resulted in the isolation of kaempferol 3-O-ß-glucoside and kaempferol 3-O-ß-diglucoside. Oral treatment with 100 and 300 mg/kg of extract significantly inhibited the carrageenan-induced edema formation, with inhibitions of 53 ± 7% and 47 ± 10%; in MPO activity, the observed inhibitions were 60 ± 7% for 100 mg/kg treatment and 63 ± 7% for 300 mg/kg. The ACME reduced significantly the total leukocytes (an inhibition of 78 ± 9% with 100 mg/kg and 90 ± 7% with 300 mg/kg) and protein levels (approximately 100% inhibition with both doses) in the pleurisy model. In carrageenan-induced leukocyte migration into the pouch, the extract inhibited leukocyte migration only when administered 300 mg/kg per dose (the reduction was 43 ± 5%). Pretreatment with extract failed to reduce the zymosan-induced edema formation and did not inhibit the carrageenan-induced mechanical allodynia. Damage reduction in Allium cepa tested with different concentrations (5, 10, and 15 mg/L) was 66.17, 75.75, and 69.19% for the pre-treatment; 72.72, 33.33, and 22.22% for the simple simultaneous treatment; 100.50, 93.93, and 102.52% for the simultaneous treatment with pre-incubation; 89.39, 79.79, and 84.34%; for the post-treatment, and 86.36, 81.31, and 93.43% for the continuous treatment. The antimutagenic evaluation in the micronucleous test showed a damage reduction of 75.00 and 64.58% for the pre-treatment and simultaneous protocols, respectively. The post-treatment protocol increased the cyclophosphamide effects in 45.83%. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that this medicinal plant has chemopreventive and anti-inflammatory therapeutic potential.

Antihyperalgesic and antidepressive actions of (R)-(+)-limonene, α-phellandrene, and essential oil from Schinus terebinthifolius fruits in a neuropathic pain model.

OBJECTIVES: Previous studies have shown that essential oil containing (R)-(+)-limonene and α-phellandrene, extracted from fruits of Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi, exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. This work aimed to verify the antihyperalgesic and antidepressive actions of (R)-(+)-limonene, α-phellandrene, and essential oil from S. terebinthifolius fruits in spared nerve injury (SNI) model of neuropathic pain in rats. METHODS: In the present work, essential oil from fruits of S. terebinthifolius, as well as the pure (R)-(+)-limonene and α-phellandrene compounds, were assayed for their effects on SNI-induced mechanical and cold hyperalgesia, and depressive-like behavior (immobility in forced swim test) in rats. The locomotor activity was evaluated in open-field test. RESULTS: Oral administration for up to 15 days of essential oil of S. terebinthifolius (100 mg/kg), (R)-(+)-limonene (10 mg/kg), α-phellandrene (10 mg/kg), and also subcutaneous 10 mg/kg dose of ketamine (positive control) significantly inhibited SNI-induced mechanical hyperalgesia and increased immobility in the forced swim test. On the 15th day of oral treatment, α-phellandrene, but neither the essential oil from S. terebinthifolius nor (R)-(+)-limonene, prevented the SNI-induced increase in sensitivity to a cold stimulus. The oral treatment with essential oil (100 mg/kg) or with compounds (10 mg/kg) did not interfere on locomotor activity. DISCUSSION: Together, the results of the present work show that essential oil of S. terebinthifolius and compounds present in this oil, including (R)-(+)-limonene and α-phellandrene, exhibit antihyperalgesic effects against mechanical hyperalgesia, and are antidepressive, while only α-phellandrene inhibited cold hyperalgesia in SNI rats.

Toxicological analysis and anti-inflammatory effects of essential oil from Piper vicosanum leaves.

This study assessed the anti-inflammatory effects of the essential oil from Piper vicosanum leaves (OPV) and evaluated the toxicological potential of this oil through acute toxicity, genotoxicity and mutagenicity tests. The acute toxicity of OPV was evaluated following oral administration to female rats at a single dose of 2 g/kg b.w. To evaluate the genotoxic and mutagenic potential, male mice were divided into five groups: I: negative control; II: positive control; III: 500 mg/kg of OPV; IV: 1000 mg/kg of OPV; V: 2000 mg/kg of OPV. The anti-inflammatory activity of OPV was evaluated in carrageenan-induced pleurisy and paw edema models in rats. No signs of acute toxicity were observed, indicating that the LD50 of this oil is greater than 2000 mg/kg. In the comet assay, OPV did not increase the frequency or rate of DNA damage in groups treated with any of the doses assessed compared to that in the negative control group. In the micronucleus test, the animals treated did not exhibit any cytotoxic or genotoxic changes in peripheral blood erythrocytes. OPV (100 and 300 mg/kg) significantly reduced edema formation and inhibited leukocyte migration analyzed in the carrageenan-induced edema and pleurisy models. These results show that OPV has anti-inflammatory potential without causing acute toxicity or genotoxicity.