The effect of ambient temperature fluctuations on Culicoides biting midges population dynamics and activity in dairy farms: a longitudinal study.

The effect of climatic factors on the presence of Culicoides Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) was previously studied. Nevertheless, lack of laboratory rearing data hampers species-specific prediction of weather fluctuations effect on population size. To determine fluctuations in population size in the field, we recorded Culicoides and other Nematocerans in seven Israeli dairy farms over two-years (2011-2012) and analysed the association of their dynamics with fluctuations in ambient temperature and total rainfall. In six farms, the most abundant species were Culicoides imicola Kieffer and Culicoides schultzei (Enderlein) gp., primarily composed of parous females, and in one farm Culicoides obsoletus (Meigen) gp., mostly nulliparous females, were dominant. While the total number of insects was similar in both years, Culicoides numbers were significantly higher in 2012, but appeared later in the season and reached a higher peak. A multi-variable linear regression model demonstrated positive association of C. imicola and C. schultzei numbers with the monthly multi-annual ambient temperature and its specific deviation, but not with monthly rainfall. C. obsoletus populations peaked at spring and sharply decreased when temperature exceeded 20 °C, and were best modelled by adding quadratic terms. Weather-specific estimation of population size under field conditions may enable to predict outbreaks intensity of Culicoides-borne viruses.

Short communication: Detection of lameness in dairy cows using a grooming device.

Lameness in dairy cattle is a common welfare problem with significant economic implications. All too often, appropriate treatment is delayed or neglected due to insufficient detection of lame cows. Brush usage is considered a low-resilience activity; that is, one that typically decreases when energy resources are limited or when the cost involved in the activity increases, such as during sickness and stress. The aim of this study was to determine the association between brush usage and different degrees of lameness. Locomotion scores of 209 lactating Holstein dairy cows were collected individually once a week for 14 consecutive weeks, using a 5-point visual assessment scoring system (1 = nonlame, 2 = uneven gait, 3 = mild lameness, 4 = lameness, 5 = severe lameness). Daily brush usage was collected automatically from 3 cowsheds of similar size and structure located on a commercial dairy farm. In each of the 3 cowsheds, 2 brushes were installed, one next to the feed bunk, and the other away from the feed bunk (on the opposite side of the cowshed). Linear and generalized linear mixed-effects models were used to evaluate the association between locomotion scores and daily measures of brush usage. We found a significant interaction between locomotion score and brush location (near to/distant from feed bunk) on the daily proportion of cows using the brush at least once and on daily duration of brush usage. Specifically, we showed that lame and severely lame cows did not use brushes that were installed away from the feed bunk but continued to use brushes that were installed next to the feed bunk. Brush usage by cows with uneven gait (locomotion score 2) or with mild lameness (locomotion score 3) did not differ from that of nonlame cows (locomotion score 1). The results of this study suggest that monitoring of daily usage of brushes located away from the feed bunk could be a useful method for detecting lameness and severe lameness in dairy cows. However, the use of this method to detect mild lameness or cases of abnormal gait is, at this stage, less promising.

High relative abundance of the stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans is associated with lumpy skin disease outbreaks in Israeli dairy farms.

The vector of lumpy skin disease (LSD), a viral disease affecting Bovidae, is currently unknown. To evaluate the possible vector of LSD virus (LSDV) under field conditions, a yearlong trapping of dipterans was conducted in dairy farms that had been affected by LSD, 1-2 years previously. This was done in order to calculate monthly relative abundances of each dipteran in each farm throughout the year. The relative abundances of Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) in the months parallel to the outbreaks (December and April) were significantly higher than those of other dipterans. A stable fly population model based on weather parameters for the affected area was used to validate these findings. Its results were significantly correlated with S. calcitrans abundance. This model, based on weather parameters during the epidemic years showed that S. calcitrans populations peaked in the months of LSD onset in the studied farms. These observations and model predictions revealed a lower abundance of stable flies during October and November, when LSD affected adjacent grazing beef herds. These findings therefore suggest that S. calcitrans is a potential vector of LSD in dairy farms and that another vector is probably involved in LSDV transmission in grazing herds. These findings should be followed up with vector competence studies.

Short communication: Detection and monitoring of metritis in dairy cows using an automated grooming device.

Metritis, a prevalent disease on dairy farms, is negatively associated with reproduction, milk production, and the welfare of cows. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of monitoring low-resilience activities (i.e., behaviors that typically decrease when energy resources are limited or when the cost involved in the activity increases; e.g., brush usage) in the early detection of metritis. Data on daily brush usage (i.e., proportion of cows using the brush and the duration of usage) were collected from 28 metritic and 60 control cows 28 d postpartum using an automated monitoring system developed for the purpose of this study. During the first week following partum (before clinical diagnosis), we found no differences in brush usage between sick and control cows. However, 8 to 21 d postpartum (the week of clinical diagnosis and the first week of medical treatment), a lower proportion of metritic cows used the brush compared with control cows (0.49 compared with 0.64, respectively, at brushes installed away from the feed bunk). In addition, the daily duration of brush usage was 50% lower among cows diagnosed with metritis compared with control cows 8 to 28 d postpartum (44 s/d compared with 88 s/d, respectively). The results of this study suggest that on-farm monitoring of low-resilience behaviors, combined with existing systems that monitor core behaviors (e.g., activity and rumination), may serve as an improved method for detecting events that compromise the welfare of animals. The slow recovery of low-resilience behaviors following medical treatment (wk 4) might serve as a particularly useful indicator of progress of recovery from disease.

Invited review: Environmental enrichment of dairy cows and calves in indoor housing.

In recent years, an increasing number of farmers are choosing to keep their cows indoors throughout the year. Indoor housing of cows allows farmers to provide high-yielding individuals with a nutritionally balanced diet fit for their needs, and it has important welfare benefits for both cows and their calves, such as protection from predators, parasites, and exposure to extreme weather conditions. However, it also confronts cows and calves with a wide range of environmental challenges. These include abiotic environmental sources of stress (e.g., exposure to loud and aversive sound) and confinement-specific stressors (e.g., restricted movement and maintenance in abnormal social groups). Cows and calves that live indoors are also faced with the challenge of occupying long periods with a limited range of possible behavioral patterns. Environmental enrichment can improve biological functioning (measured as increased lifetime reproductive success, increased inclusive fitness, or a correlate of these such as improved health), help animals to cope with stressors in their surroundings, reduce frustration, increase the fulfillment of behavioral needs, and promote more positive affective states. Here, we review recent findings on the effect of social, occupational, physical, sensory, and nutritional enrichment on dairy cows and calves, and we assess the appropriateness and practicality of implementing different enrichment practices on commercial dairy farms. Some of the enrichment methods reviewed here may also be applied to those more extensive cattle-raising systems, where similar challenges occur.

The effect of food location, heat load, and intrusive medical procedures on brushing activity in dairy cows.

Animals allocate time and effort to a range of core (e.g., sleeping, feeding, drinking) and "luxury" (e.g., playing, exploring) activities. A luxury activity is characterized by low resilience and, as such, will be reduced when time or energy resources are limited, including under conditions of stress or discomfort. One seemingly luxurious activity available to cows on an increasing number of dairy farms is rubbing against an automated brush. The current study examined the effect of distance from food, heat load, and an intrusive medical procedure (i.e., artificial insemination and transrectal pregnancy examination) on the resilience of brush usage. The probability of using the brush decreased significantly when food was located distantly from the brush (mean=0.53) compared with days when food was located closer to the brush (mean=0.81). Brush usage also decreased at high temperature and humidity levels, with an average decrease of 0.062 brushing events for an increase of 1 temperature-humidity index unit (95% confidence interval=-0.93-0.030). In addition, a significant reduction of approximately 50% in brushing activity was observed on days of artificial insemination compared with the preceding 3d and the following 3d. These findings show that brush usage is a low resilience activity that reduces under a range of conditions. It may thus have the potential to be used as an indicator of a range of health and welfare problems in cows. Further research should be conducted to assess the sensitivity and specificity of this suggested tool and its possible contribution to the early detection of morbidity.

A cluster of septic olecranon bursitis in association with infantry training.

Septic olecranon bursitis (OB) is caused primarily by Staphylococcus aureus (SA) usually in association with occupations involving trauma to the elbows. An outbreak of septic OB was identified in an infantry platoon. The severity of the injury to the skin overlying the elbows was scored and compared to a parallel platoon of the same unit. All soldiers were tested for SA carriage and pulse field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) was performed on available isolates. Nine cases of septic OB were identified only in platoon A. The significant risk factor for septic OB was a moderately or severely injured elbow (RR = 3.86). SA was isolated from the anterior nares and elbows of 29/36 (80.6%) of the soldiers in the unit (platoons A + B); however, this did not account for the difference in morbidity between the two platoons. This is the first report of a cluster of septic OB in association with intense infantry training.

Assessment of the productivity effects associated with epizootic hemorrhagic disease in dairy herds.

Epizootic hemorrhagic disease is caused by a Culicoides-borne Orbivirus. In cattle, the disease is characterized by reduced milk production and mortality. Recent outbreaks of epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) in North Africa, Israel, and Turkey increase the risk of its invasion into central and northern Europe. An outbreak of EHDV in Israel during the fall of 2006 enabled an assessment of the consequent production losses to the dairy cattle industry. Reduction in milk production and involuntary culling were modeled using a 4-yr database of monthly milk and mortality records from 48 affected and 63 unaffected herds. These indices were compared between periods of outbreak and no outbreak and assessed for various levels and exposure onset. Geospatial kriging interpolation of serological results from 127 herds was used to assess the total outbreak losses for the dairy cattle industry in Israel. Herds affected during the first, second, and third month of the outbreak (September-November) experienced an average loss of 207 (95% CI=154-261), 137 (63-211), and 52 (27-76) kg of milk/milking cow, respectively, during the outbreak period. An average excess mortality and involuntary culling of 1.47/100 cows was documented in herds affected in September. High correlation was observed between EHDV seroprevalence and milk loss; average milk loss for herds with seropositivity of 26 to 50, 51 to 75, and 76 to 100% was 84, 133, and 204 kg of milk/milking cow, respectively. A 1.42% (0.91-1.93%) increase in mortality was observed in herds with seroprevalence above 50%. Losses for the dairy cattle industry interpolated from these data were estimated at US$2,491,000 (US$1,591,000-3,391,000), an average loss of US$26.5/cow in the Israeli dairy cattle. This equals 0.55% of the average total value production of a dairy cow in Israel. This is the first study to estimate the production losses caused by EHDV or any bluetongue-like disease.

[Double trypanosomal chancre revealing West African trypanosomiasis in a Frenchman living in Gabon]. / Chancres cutanés révélant une trypanosomose africaine à Trypanosoma brucei gambiense chez un résident français au Gabon.

BACKGROUND: Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), an endemic disease, is currently reemerging in Africa with an estimated incidence of 45,000 new cases per year. It is caused by Trypanosoma brucei subspecies and transmitted by day-biting tsetse flies. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We report a case of West African trypanosomiasis due to Trypanosoma brucei gambiense involving a Frenchman living in Libreville, Gabon. The patient presented with fever and polyadenopathies as well as two skin ulcerations highly suggestive of trypanosomiasis. Microscopic examination of cutaneous and peripheral blood smears confirmed the diagnosis of haemolymphatic infection with T. b. gambiense with trypanosomal chancres. Examination of the cerebrospinal fluid was normal. The patient was successfully treated with pentamidine isethionate. CONCLUSIONS: Recognition of cutaneous manifestations may allow a rapid diagnosis of African trypanosomiasis that is essential for timely and efficient treatment and survival.

Prognostic indicators for canine monocytic ehrlichiosis.

In order to identify prognostic factors for survival in canine monocytic ehrlichiosis (CME), clinical records of 40 cases of CME were retrospectively studied. The dogs were assigned as survivors (n=21) and non-survivors (n=19), and their signalment, anamnesis, clinical and clinicopathological signs, and treatment protocols were compared. Pale mucous membranes, bleeding tendencies and weakness were more prevalent in the non-survivors compared to the survivors. Dogs in the non-survivor group had significantly lower white blood cell (WBC), hematocrit (HCT), and platelet (PLT) counts. Pronounced pancytopenia (WBC < 4 x 10(3) microL(-1); HCT < 25%; PLT < 50 x 10(3) microL(-1)) was found as a risk factor for mortality. In this study, severe leucopenia (WBC < 0.93 x 10(3) microL(-1)), severe anemia (PCV < 11.5%), prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT>18.25s) and hypokalemia (K<3.65 mmol/L) were each found to predict mortality with a probability of 100%. In contrast, WBC counts above 5.18 x 10(3) microL(-1), platelet counts above 89.5 x 10(3) microL(-1), PCV > 33.5%, APTT < 14.5s and serum potassium concentration above 4.75 mmol/L, each provided 100% prediction for survival. These prognostic indicators can be easily obtained at presentation, are inexpensive, and may be useful aids when treatment and prognosis are being considered.

Source-receptor probability of atmospheric long-distance dispersal of viruses to Israel from the eastern Mediterranean area.

Viruses that affect the health of humans and farm animals can spread over long distances via atmospheric mechanisms. The phenomenon of atmospheric long-distance dispersal (LDD) is associated with severe consequences because it may introduce pathogens into new areas. The introduction of new pathogens to Israel was attributed to LDD events numerous times. This provided the motivation for this study which is aimed to identify all the locations in the eastern Mediterranean that may serve as sources for pathogen incursion into Israel via LDD. This aim was achieved by calculating source-receptor relationship probability maps. These maps describe the probability that an infected vector or viral aerosol, once airborne, will have an atmospheric route that can transport it to a distant location. The resultant probability maps demonstrate a seasonal tendency in the probability of specific areas to serve as sources for pathogen LDD into Israel. Specifically, Cyprus' season is the summer; southern Turkey and the Greek islands of Crete, Karpathos and Rhodes are associated with spring and summer; lower Egypt and Jordan may serve as sources all year round, except the summer months. The method used in this study can easily be implemented to any other geographic region. The importance of this study is the ability to provide a climatologically valid and accurate risk assessment tool to support long-term decisions regarding preparatory actions for future outbreaks long before a specific outbreak occurs.

Association of neutering with health and welfare of urban free-roaming cat population in Israel, during 2012-2014.

'Trap-Neutering by gonadectomy-Return' (TNR) is currently becoming an accepted method for managing free-roaming cat (FRC) populations, especially in human habitation. However, data regarding its impact on cat welfare are limited. In order to determine the demographic risk factors for FRC morbidity, we followed FRC populations in the city of Rishon LeZion during 2012-2014. Their age status (kitten/adult), contraceptive status (neutered/intact), sex, body-condition-scoring (BCS 1-5/5; 1= emaciation, 5= obesity), skin lesions, and external signs of disabilities and injuries were recorded and analyzed. We fitted a mixed effects generalized linear model to each cat-condition. Overall, 4615 cat-observations were recorded, of which 692 were kittens, 2365 neutered adults and 1445 intact adults. In comparison to intact adults, kittens had a significantly higher prevalence of emaciation (BCS 1; OR of 4.61, CI95% 2.67-7.6, p < 0.001) and severe disability or injury (OR of 3.65, CI95% 1.44-9.25, p = 0.006). Among adult cats, neutered cats had higher prevalence of obesity (BCS 5; OR 30.6, CI95% 10.06-93.09, p < 0.001), lower prevalence of skin lesions (OR of 0.51, CI95% 0.3-0.86, p = 0.011), and close to significant lower prevalence of severe disability or injury (OR of 0.4, CI95% 0.15-1.07, p = 0.068). However, these neutered adults also had a higher prevalence of permanent disability (e.g. anophthalmia, tail or limb absence) (OR of 1.67, CI95% 1.12-2.49, p = 0.012). A higher ratio of neutered FRCs in the geographical surroundings was correlated with a reduced prevalence of emaciated (BCS 1; OR of 0.85 for the increase of 10% in proportion of neutered cats, CI95% 0.74-0.97, p = 0.020) and thin adult cats (BCS 2; OR of 0.94 for the increase of 10% in proportion of neutered cats, CI95% 0.90-0.98, p = 0.010), among both neutered and intact cats. The results suggest that neutering has a favorable effect on FRC health. Such effect can be due to both a direct influence on the neutered cats themselves, as well as to an indirect effect on the general cat population (intact and neutered cats) by reducing competitive behavior of the neutered cats, which may enable other cats to gain additional access to vital resources. A higher prevalence of permanent disability found among the neutered FRCs does not necessarily represent a higher risk of injury but can rather be attributed to their potentially prolonged lifespan.

Risk factors for Newcastle disease in broiler farms in Israel.

Following a large outbreak of Newcastle disease (ND) in Israel, a cross-sectional study was conducted in the broilers sector. The aim of the study was to find geographical and farm related risk factors for ND. Information was available on 96% of the broiler farms in Israel. Of these, farms diagnosed with ND in the years 2010-2012 were compared with the other farms. Risk factors for ND were analyzed, using Generalized Estimating Equation models. Six variables were found to be associated with the risk for ND outbreak: a distance of less than 300m from another farm (OR=1.77, 95% CI 1.07-2.93), a distance of less than 6000m from a national border (OR=2.00, 95% CI 1.22-3.30), farm location in the Ha'amakim district (OR=2.46, 95% CI 1.32-4.61), village type: a Moshav (village) vs. Kibbutz (Cooperative village) (OR=1.96, 95% CI 1.04-3.70), and carcass disposal in an uncovered bin (OR=1.96, 95% CI 1.18-3.26). A distance of less than 800m from an inter-city road was found to be a protective factor (OR=0.60, 95% CI 0.37-0.98). The results of this study provide information that may be used to improve surveillance and control of ND.

Using Synoptic Systems' Typical Wind Trajectories for the Analysis of Potential Atmospheric Long-Distance Dispersal of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus.

Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) is an infectious, arthropod-borne virus that affects mostly cattle. Solitary outbreaks have occurred in Israel in 1989 and 2006. In both years, the outbreaks occurred parallel to a severe outbreak in Egypt, and LSDV was hypothesized to be transmitted from Egypt to Israel via long-distance dispersal (LDD) of infected vectors by wind. The aim of this study was to identify possible events of such transport. At the first stage, we identified the relevant synoptic systems that allowed wind transport from Egypt to Israel during the 3 months preceding each outbreak. Three-dimensional backwards Lagrangian trajectories were calculated from the receptor sites in Israel for each occurrence of such relevant synoptic system. The analysis revealed several events in which atmospheric connection routes between the affected locations in Egypt and Israel were established. Specifically, during the 1989, Damietta and Port Said stand out as likely sources for the outbreak in Israel. In 2006, different locations acted simultaneously as potential sources of the outbreak in Israel. These locations were situated in the Nile delta, the Suez Canal and in northern Sinai. The analysis pointed out Sharav low and Shallow Cyprus low to the North to be the most likely systems to enable windborne transport from Egypt to Israel. These findings are of high importance for the analysis of the risk of transmission of vectorborne viruses in the eastern Mediterranean region.

Analysis of the Association of Climate, Weather and Herd Immunity with the Spread of Equine Encephalosis Virus in Horses in Israel.

It is claimed that the distribution of Culicoides-borne viruses is highly influenced by climate. Equine encephalosis virus (EEV) is a Culicoides-borne orbivirus which affects horses and was recently found to be endemic in Israel. To test whether climate is a crucial factor in the geographical distribution of EEV, we collected blood samples from horses in Israel during the years 2002, 2007 and 2010 and tested them for the abundance of antibodies to EEV. Samples were also collected in 2011 from horses that were seronegative to the virus in 2010, to determine the rate of infection with EEV. It was found that seroprevalence fluctuated between the years and that in each year it was highest in a different climatic region. Interestingly, analysis of infection rate at the different farms showed a negative association with seroprevalence at prior observations. In addition, analysis of precipitation preceding the outbreak of EEV which occurred during 2008 revealed that an extremely dry period existed several months prior to the febrile outbreak with the average precipitation of spring 2008 being significantly lower than the average spring precipitation of the years 1997-2009. It is therefore conjectured that exposure to EEV is not climate specific. Rather, it is highly influenced by herd immunity and weather fluctuations which might change annually. This finding may have important implications for the prediction of the abundance of Culicoides-borne viruses in endemic regions.

Comparative studies of differential expression of chitinolytic enzymes encoded by chiA, chiB, chiC and nagA genes in Aspergillus nidulans.

N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine, chito-oligomers and carbon starvation regulated chiA, chiB, and nagA gene expressions in Aspergillus nidulans cultures. The gene expression patterns of the main extracellular endochitinase ChiB and the N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase NagA were similar, and the ChiB-NagA enzyme system may play a morphological and/or nutritional role during autolysis. Alterations in the levels of reactive oxygen species or in the glutathione-glutathione disulfide redox balance, characteristic physiological changes developing in ageing and autolyzing fungal cultures, did not affect the regulation of either the growth-related chiA or the autolysis-coupled chiB genes although both of them were down-regulated under diamide stress. The transcription of the chiC gene with unknown physiological function was repressed by increased intracellular superoxide concentration.

The longevity of anti NSP antibodies and the sensitivity of a 3ABC ELISA - A 3 years follow up of repeatedly vaccinated dairy cattle infected by foot and mouth disease virus.

ELISA tests for detection of anti NSP antibodies are extensively used in surveys estimating exposure of livestock to foot and mouth disease virus as a part of endemic and post epidemic surveillance programs. Yet, estimation of the longevity of anti NSP antibodies in naturally infected cattle and the sensitivity of ELISA tests based on them were rarely studied to date. Our research aim was to estimate the long term (up to 1118 days after exposure) change in levels of anti NSP antibodies in dairy cattle individuals naturally infected by FMDV and to evaluate the sensitivity of a commercially available ELISA kit in detecting anti NSP antibodies during the follow up period. A 3ABC blocking ELISA kit (PrioCHECK(®) FMDV NS) was used in a 3 years follow up study of repeatedly vaccinated cattle, which were found to be NSP positive during an FMD outbreak in a dairy farm. In order to rule out the possibility of a recurrent FMD outbreak involving the study population we combined clinical and laboratory monitoring: Cattle which were located in the same herd and were previously found as negative to anti NSP antibodies were followed and did not present FMD symptoms or a serological conversion. The overall sensitivity for infection detection was calculated using two approaches. When a conservative approach was taken and equivocal results (45%≤PI≤55%) were treated as negative, the sensitivities were 95% (CI95%=75.1-99.9%), 88.2% (CI95%=63.6-98.5%) and 76.9% (CI95%=46.2-95%) 311, 689 and 1118 days after the outbreak, respectively. However, when equivocal results were treated as positive, the sensitivities were 100% (CI95%=83.2-100%), 94.1% (CI95%=71.3-99.9%) and 92.3% (CI95%=64-99.8%) 311, 689 and 1118 days after the outbreak, respectively. We therefore conclude that this test can serve as a valuable tool for detection of previous FMDV infection in cattle in endemic countries, where routine vaccinations are implied, even several years after exposure.

Nuisances and welfare of free-roaming cats in urban settings and their association with cat reproduction.

Free roaming cats (FRC) are highly abundant in cities around the world. Increasing populations of these cats might result in impairment of cat welfare and cause nuisances and public health risks. In order to study the seasonal dynamics of FRC populations and its association with events of cat welfare impairment and nuisances, we analyzed a database of FRC-associated citizens' telephone complaint events, which were registered in five cities in Israel (total human population of 1.42 million residents) during the years 2007-2011. These complaint events were classified to the following six categories: cat's carcasses, kittens, parturition, aggressive behavior toward people, invasion to human facilities, and cat injuries and distress. Overall, 87,764 complaint events associated with these categories were registered in the five cities during the study period (123.2 complaint events per 10,000 citizens per year). Length of daylight was moderately correlated with the rate of complaints on kittens in the same month (r=0.64) and parturition in the previous month (r=0.54) (P<0.001). Both kitten and parturition-related complaints showed a prominent seasonal pattern, peaking in April and May, respectively, and declining gradually until November. 'Kittens' or 'parturition' were explicitly mentioned in 38%, 39% and 19%, respectively, of the complaints regarding cat aggressiveness toward people, cat invasion to human facilities and cat injuries and distress. In most of the cities the rate of citizen complaints regarding carcasses, aggression, invasion and injuries were still significantly correlated with rate of complaints regarding kittens after omission of these joint complaints and remained significant after controlling for seasonality. These findings imply an association of cat welfare impairment and nuisances with FRC reproduction intensity. The current study revealed the high rate of nuisances and potential public health hazards related to FRC, as well as the impairment of cat welfare, which might be merely 'the tip of the iceberg' of the real welfare situation of these cats. Further studies should examine the effectiveness of FRC population control strategies for the reduction of the rate of nuisances and public health risks related to FRC, as well as for improving their welfare.

Risk factors for foot and mouth disease outbreaks in grazing beef cattle herds.

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is considered one of the most important diseases of cattle. Recurrence of FMD outbreaks in Israel is common, even though routine vaccination of livestock is mandatory and control measures are applied during the outbreaks. Grazing beef herds are occasionally involved in these outbreaks and play an important role in disseminating the disease, due to the large efflux of animals from these herds to feedlots. Nevertheless, the risk factors for the occurrence of FMD among these herds have never been investigated. In 2011, Israel faced a large scale outbreak of serotype O FMD virus, which strongly affected beef cattle. We conducted a case-control study of 44 beef cattle herds grazing in the Golan Heights in order to determine the risk factors for FMDV infection. Data were analyzed using a generalized estimation equation (GEE) with a logit link function. Multivariable analysis was conducted for factors with p-value lower than 0.1 in the univariable analysis. The presence of calves under 6 months of age was found as a significant risk factor for FMDV infection in the univariable analysis (odds ratio (OR)=5.95, confidence intervals of 95% (CI95%)=1.59-22.29, p=0.008). This was also the only variable that remained statistically significant in the multivariable analysis. Herds in which more than 6 months between vaccination of adults and exposure had elapsed were in higher risk, albeit not statistically significant, for the occurrence of FMDV infection (OR=3.29, CI95%=0.83-12.99, p=0.089). The higher probability of infection in herds, which included young calves may be a result of their higher susceptibility due to administration of only one or no vaccine prior to the outbreak. The results of the study thus support increasing the frequency of vaccination of both cows and calves in grazing beef herds. Intensifying surveillance where young calves are abundant may also prove efficient for early detection of infected herds and for mitigating outbreaks of FMDV.