High-Intensity Conditioning Activity Causes Localized Postactivation Performance Enhancement and Nonlocalized Performance Reduction.

ABSTRACT: Kolinger D, Stastny P, Pisz A, Krzysztofik M, Wilk M, Tsoukos A, and Bogdanis GC. High-intensity conditioning activity causes localized postactivation performance enhancement and nonlocalized performance reduction. J Strength Cond Res 38(1): e1-e7, 2024-This study aimed to examine whether a conditioning activity (CA) performed by the legs (barbell back squat) may cause postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) on muscle groups other than leg extensors in isokinetic (eccentric [ECC] and concentric [CON]) and dynamic movement. Twelve male basketball players (age: 21.3 ± 3.2, body mass: 89.6 ± 14.1 kg, height: 187.4 ± 4.6 cm, and 1 repetition maximum (1RM) barbell back squat: 113 ± 21 kg) with previous resistance-training experience of at least 2 years, performed 3 sets of 3-4 repetitions of back-squats with submaximal load (60, 90, and 90% 1RM) as CA. Before and after the CA, they performed pretest and post-test in the form of countermovement jumps (CMJs) (localized) or explosive push-ups (EPUs) (nonlocalized) along with isokinetic flexion and extension at the knee (localized) or at the elbow (nonlocalized). The localized and nonlocalized protocols were divided into 2 days in a randomized order. The back squat as CA significantly increased peak torque (PT) (p < 0.05) in all CON and ECC muscle actions and average power per repetition (APPR) (p < 0.05) (all muscle actions except ECC flexion) of the localized isokinetic tests with large (>0.8) and medium (0.4-0.79) effect sizes and significantly decreased (p < 0.01) the PT and APPR (p < 0.01) of the nonlocalized isokinetic test in the ECC flexion. The CMJ and EPU tests showed no significant differences (p > 0.05) between premeasures and postmeasures of take-off height. The effect of PAPE seems to be specific to the muscles most involved in the CA, and the CA inhibits PT of subsequent muscle ECC contractions in muscles not involved in the CA.

Acute Effects of Isometric Conditioning Activity on the Viscoelastic Properties of Muscles and Sprint and Jumping Performance in Handball Players.

ABSTRACT: Krzysztofik, M, Spieszny, M, Trybulski, R, Wilk, M, Pisz, A, Kolinger, D, Filip-Stachnik, A, and Stastny, P. Acute effects of isometric conditioning activity on the viscoelastic properties of muscles and sprint and jumping performance in handball players. J Strength Cond Res 37(7): 1486-1494, 2023-The effects of conditioning activity (CA) on muscle stiffness are currently unknown, suggesting that maximum CA effort can increase or decrease the stiffness of involved muscle groups. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of maximal isometric half-squats on the viscoelastic properties of muscles and postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) in sprints and jumps. Twelve handball players underwent a standard warm-up and baseline assessment of muscle stiffness and tone of vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius medialis muscle, followed by 20-m sprint with intermediate measures at 5 and 10 m and countermovement jump. The PAPE was assessed by repeating the tests (at 4th, 8th, and 12th minute post-CA) after a CA protocol consisting of 3 sets of 3-second maximal isometric half-squats (EXP) or a control condition (CTRL) without any CA. The vastus lateralis stiffness in the 4th and 12th minute and muscle tone in the 4th minute post-CA significantly decreased compared with baseline ( p = 0.041, ES = 0.57; p = 0.013, ES = 0.52; p = 0.004, ES = 0.81, respectively) in the EXP condition. The 20-m sprint time significantly decreased at all post-CA time points compared with the baseline for the EXP condition ( p < 0.033) and the after values in the CTRL condition ( p < 0.036). In comparison to baseline, the 10-m sprint time decreased in the eighth minute post-CA ( p = 0.021; ES = 0.82) in the EXP condition. Moreover, it was significantly lower at the 8th and 12th minute post-CA ( p = 0.038; ES = 0.71 and p = 0.005; ES = 1.26) compared with that time points in the CTRL condition. The maximal isometric half-squats effectively improved sprint performance and significantly decreased vastus lateralis tone and stiffness. These findings offer new insights into the assessment of viscoelastic properties for evaluating the fatigue or potentiation state, which requires further investigation.

Acute Effects of Varied Back Squat Activation Protocols on Muscle-Tendon Stiffness and Jumping Performance.

ABSTRACT: Krzysztofik, M, Wilk, M, Pisz, A, Kolinger, D, Tsoukos, A, Zajac, A, Stastny, P, and Bogdanis, GC. Acute effects of varied back squat activation protocols on muscle-tendon stiffness and jumping performance. J Strength Cond Res 37(7): 1419-1427, 2023-Intensity, movement velocity, and volume are the principal factors to successfully use postactivation performance enhancement. Therefore, 15 resistance-trained volleyball players completed 3 different back squat configurations as a conditioning activity (CA) in randomized order: (a) 3 sets of 3 repetitions at 85% 1RM (HL); (b) a single set of back squats at 60% 1RM until 10% mean velocity loss (VB); (c) and 2 sets of back squats at 60% 1RM until 10% mean velocity loss (2VB) on subsequent countermovement jump performance, Achilles tendon, and vastus lateralis stiffness with concomitant front thigh skin surface temperature assessment. The measurements were performed 5 minutes before the CA and at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 minutes. The jump height was significantly increased in the second minute and at peak, post-CA compared with baseline for all conditions ( p = 0.049; ES = 0.23 and p < 0.001; ES = 0.37). Skin surface temperature was significantly increased for all post-CA time points compared with baseline in the 2VB condition ( p from <0.001-0.023; ES = 0.39-1.04) and in the fourth minute and at peak post-CA in HL condition ( p = 0.023; ES = 0.69 and p = 0.04; ES = 0.46), whereas for the VB condition, a significant decrease in peak post-CA was found ( p = 0.004; ES = -0.54). Achilles tendon stiffness was significantly decreased for second, fourth, eighth, 10th, and peak post-CA in comparison to baseline for all conditions ( p from p = 0.004-0.038; ES = -0.47 to -0.69). Vastus lateralis stiffness was significantly decreased for peak post-CA compared with baseline for all conditions ( p = 0.017; ES = -0.42). We recommend using a single set of barbell squats with a 10% velocity loss as a mechanism of fatigue control to acutely improve jump height performance and avoid unnecessary increases in training volume.

Acute Effects of High-Load vs. Plyometric Conditioning Activity on Jumping Performance and the Muscle-Tendon Mechanical Properties.

ABSTRACT: Krzysztofik, M, Wilk, M, Pisz, A, Kolinger, D, Bichowska, M, Zajac, A, and Stastny, P. Acute effects of high-load versus plyometric conditioning activity on jumping performance and the muscle-tendon mechanical properties. J Strength Cond Res 37(7): 1397-1403, 2023-The effectiveness of high-load and plyometric exercises as conditioning activity (CA) is not well described in the level of performance enhancement and muscle-tendon properties. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the effectiveness of high-loaded back squats and body mass tuck jumps among amateur soccer players on the height of countermovement jump performed without (CMJ) and with arm swing (CMJa) and to verify the usefulness of the myotonometry in assessing the level of CA-induced fatigue. Therefore, 16 male amateur soccer players (resistance training experience: 2 ± 1 year, relative 1 repetition maximum back squat strength: 1.41 ± 0.12 kg·body mass-1) performed 3 experimental sessions to compare the acute effects of 3 sets of 3 repetitions at 85% one repetition maximum of half back squats (HL), 3 sets of 5 repetitions of tuck jump exercises (PLY), and no CA (CTRL) on CMJ and CMJa height. Moreover, the gastrocnemius medialis and Achilles tendon tone and stiffness were examined. Measurements were performed 5 minutes before CA and in the third, sixth, and ninth minutes after CA. The CMJ height significantly increased from pre-CA to post-CA in the CTRL (p = 0.005; effect size [ES] = 0.36; Δ = +3.4%) and PLY (p = 0.001; ES = 0.83; Δ = +8.8%) conditions. Moreover, post-CA jump height was significantly higher in PLY than in the HL condition (p = 0.024; ES = 0.6; Δ = +5.9%). No significant differences were found for CMJa height, tone, and stiffness of gastrocnemius medialis and Achilles tendon. The low-volume plyometric CA (i.e., 3 sets of 5 repetitions) is recommended instead of high-loaded CA (≥85% one repetition maximum) for amateur athletes. In addition, it has been established that the performance improvement was independent of changes in the mechanical properties of the gastrocnemius medialis and Achilles tendon. Furthermore, it seems that the complexity of the post-CA task may affect the magnitude of the postactivation performance enhancement.

Effects of Unilateral Conditioning Activity on Acute Performance Enhancement: A Systematic Review.

This review aimed to summarize the reported effects of unilateral conditioning activity (CA) on unilateral performance, bilateral performance, and the contribution of activated body limb to bilateral performance. A systematic search on MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, and Google Scholar was conducted on February 2022. Twenty-three studies met the inclusion criteria. Throwing, jumping, swimming, change of direction, and isokinetic performance were used as outcome measures to assess the impact of unilateral CAs on inducing post-activation performance enhancement. Eleven studies examined the effectiveness of resistance exercises as a CA, seven investigated plyometric exercises, and five used isokinetic muscle actions as CAs. Notably, only three studies directly compared the effects of bilateral and unilateral CA, and no study reported possible changes in the contribution of each limb during bilateral exercises executed following unilateral CA. Split squats were the most often studied CA (7), and it was shown that multiple sets of high-loaded split squats (85% one-repetition maximum) executed as CA, improve vertical jumping and change of direction after 4 to 8 min of recovery. At the same time, multiple sets of alternate leg bounds performed with ~10% body weight or without any external load result in an improvement of sprint performance, 2 and 8 min later, with the effect being greater when loaded jumps are used. The unilateral CAs such as split squats, alternate leg bounds, and drop jumps can be effectively used to acutely improve a wide variety of athletic tasks, including jumping, sprinting, change of direction, and swimming performance.

The effect of breathing technique on sticking region during maximal bench press.

The intrathoracic pressure and breathing strategy on bench press (BP) performance is highly discussed in strength competition practice. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyze whether different breathing techniques can influence the time and track characteristics of the sticking region (SR) during the 1RM BP exercise. 24 healthy, male adults (age 23 ± 2.4 yrs., body mass 85 ± 9.2 kg, height 181 ± 5.4 cm) performed a 1 repetition BP using the breathing technique of Valsalva maneuver (VM), hold breath, lung packing (PAC), and reverse breathing (REVB), while maximum lifted load and concentric phase kinematics were recorded. The results of ANOVA showed that the REVB breathing decreased absolute (p < 0.04) and relative lifted load (p < 0.01). The VM showed lower (p = 0.01) concentric time of the lift than the other breathing techniques. The VM and PAC showed lower SR time than other breathing techniques, where PAC showed a lower SR time than VM (p = 0.02). The PAC techniques resulted in shorter SR and pre-SR track than other breathing techniques and the REVB showed longer SR track than the other considered breathing techniques (p = 0.04). Thus, PAC or VM should be used for 1RM BP lifting according to preferences, experiences and lifting comfort of an athlete. The hold breath technique does not seem to excessively decrease the lifting load, but this method will increase the lifting time and the time spend in the sticking region, therefore its use does not provide any lifting benefit. The authors suggest that the REVB should not be used during 1 RM lifts.

Effects of Eccentric Speed during Front Squat Conditioning Activity on Post-activation Performance Enhancement of Hip and Thigh Muscles.

The phenomenon of post-activation performance enhancement plays an unidentified role in movement eccentric speed and individual muscle group responses. Therefore, this study aimed to determine whether the loaded front squat (FSq) speed of the eccentric phase would influence the post-activation performance enhancement effect and whether the FSq would elicit similar performance enhancement of knee flexion, knee extension, hip flexion, and hip extension muscles. Twenty resistance-trained handball players performed the FSq under maximum eccentric-concentric speed and 2-s eccentric speed (only the eccentric phase performed), while pre- and post-front squat countermovement jump, knee, and hip isokinetic flexion/extension performance were tested. The FSq conditioning activity was performed in a single set of three repetitions with either 90% (maximum eccentric-concentric speed) or 120% (2-s eccentric speed) of one repetition maximum, and post-performance was measured 4-12 min after the FSq. Athletes randomly changed the FSq eccentric speed and tested the hip or knee isokinetic flexion/extension strength at 180°/s. ANOVA showed that the rate of force development during the jump increased (Cohen d = 0.59-0.77) with no differences between 2-s eccentric and maximum speed eccentric protocols. Isokinetic strength increased after the 2-s eccentric FSq in hip extension (d = 0.76-0.86), knee flexion (d = 0.74-0.88), and hip flexion (d = 0.82), with no differences in knee extension strength. After maximum eccentric-concentric speed, isokinetic strength increased in hip extension (d = 1.25). In conclusion, the FSq conditioning activity enhances hip extensors' performance more than knee extensors' performance. Different eccentric types of muscle action during a conditioning activity alter the level of local muscle enhancement.

Changes of Anaerobic Power and Lactate Concentration following Intense Glycolytic Efforts in Elite and Sub-Elite 400-meter Sprinters.

400-m races are based on anaerobic energy metabolism, they induce significant muscle fatigue, muscle fiber damage, and high blood lactate (LA) concentration. Despite extensive research on sprint training, our understanding of the training process that leads to world-class sprint performance is rather limited. This study aimed to determine differences in LA concentration and anaerobic power using jumping tests after an intense glycolytic effort in a group of elite and sub-elite 400-m runners. One hundred thirty male runners were divided into two groups: elite (n = 66, body mass = 73.4 ± 7.8 kg, body height = 182.1 ± 6.2 cm, age = 20.8 ± 4.0 y) running the 400-m dash below 50 s and sub-elite (n = 64, body mass = 72.0 ± 7.1 kg, body height = 182.1 ± 5.2 cm, age = 20.8 ± 4.0 y) with a 400-m personal best above 50 s. The power of the countermovement and the sequential squat jumps was measured in two sets after a warm-up, followed by two intermittent 30-s Wingate tests. LA concentration was measured eight times. It was observed that elite athletes achieved significantly higher power in both types of jumps. The maximum post-exercise LA concentration was significantly lower in the sub-elite group after the 3rd, the 6th, the 9th, and the 20th min after the cessation of two Wingate tests (p < 0.001). The rate of LA accumulation after exercise and the rate of LA utilization did not differ between the groups. It can be concluded that elite and non-elite runners differ in higher LA production but not in LA utilization. Anaerobic power and LA concentration seem to differentiate between 400 elite and sub-elite performance.

Acute Effects of Supra- and High-Loaded Front Squats on Mechanical Properties of Lower-Limb Muscles.

Knowledge about the acute effects of supramaximal-loaded resistance exercises on muscle mechanical properties is scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to examine changes in dominant limb biceps femoris and vastus lateralis oscillation frequency and stiffness before and after high- and supramaximal-loaded front squats. Nineteen male handball players participated in the experimental session with a barbell front squat 1RM. The first set was performed at 70% of the 1RM for four repetitions, and the second and third sets were performed at 90%1RM in an eccentric-concentric or an eccentric-only manner at 120% of the 1RM for three repetitions. The handheld myometer was used for the measurement of the biceps femoris and vastus lateralis stiffness and the oscillation frequency of the dominant limb 5 min before and at the 5th and 10th min after front squats. A two-way ANOVA neither indicated a statistically significant interaction (p = 0.335; η2 = 0.059 and p = 0.103; η2 = 0.118), the main effect of a condition (p = 0.124; η2 = 0.126 and p = 0.197; η2 = 0.091), nor the main effect of the time point (p = 0.314; η2 = 0.06 and p = 0.196; η2 = 0.089) for vastus lateralis and biceps femoris stiffness. However, there was a statistically significant interaction (F = 3.516; p = 0.04; η2 = 0.163) for vastus lateralis oscillation frequency. The post hoc analysis showed a significantly higher vastus lateralis oscillation frequency at POST (p = 0.037; d = 0.29) and POST_10 (p = 0.02; d = 0.29) compared to PRE during the SUPRA condition. Moreover, Friedman's test indicated statistically significant differences in biceps femoris oscillation frequency (test = 15.482; p = 0.008; Kendall's W = 0.163). Pairwise comparison showed a significantly lower biceps femoris oscillation frequency in POST (p = 0.042; d = 0.31) and POST_10 (p = 0.015; d = 0.2) during the HIGH condition compared to that in the corresponding time points during the SUPRA condition. The results of this study indicate that the SUPRA front squats, compared to the high-loaded ones, cause a significant increase in biceps femoris and vastus lateralis oscillation frequency.

Acute effects of combined isometric and plyometric conditioning activities on sports performance and tendon stiffness in female volleyball players.

This study aimed to compare the effects of bilateral and unilateral conditioning activities (CA; combined isometric and plyometric) on countermovement jump performance, modified t-agility test, Achilles tendon stiffness and skin surface temperature. Thirteen female semi-professional volleyball players performed two CAs in random order: 1) bilateral isometric half back squats followed by bilateral drop jumps (BI-CA); and 2) unilateral isometric half back squats followed by unilateral drop jumps (UNI-CA). To assess the effects of CAs, countermovement jump, modified t-agility test, Achilles tendon stiffness and skin surface temperature measurements were performed 5 min before and 6 min after the CA. Both CAs significantly increased thigh skin surface temperature from pre- to post-CA (BI-CA, p < 0.001; effect size [ES] = 1.41 and UNI-CA, p = 0.001; ES = 1.39) but none of them influenced modified t-agility test time (interaction: p = 0.338, main effect of time: p = 0.121 and condition: p = 0.819). The countermovement jump height and modified reactive strength index significantly increased from pre-to post-CA during the BI-CA condition (p = 0.003, ES = 0.45, and p = 0.008, ES = 0.48) but not for UNI-CA (p = 0.061, ES = 0.18 and p = 0.065, ES = 0.26). No significant impact has been found for countermovement depth (interaction: p = 0.054, main effect of time: 0.097, and condition: p = 0.41) as well as for contraction time (interaction: p = 0.536, main effect of time: p = 0.224, and condition: p = 0.807). Moreover, stronger and weaker limb CMJ relative peak force significantly decreased from pre-to post-CA (p = 0.014, ES = -0.31, and p = 0.027, ES = -0.26; respectively) during UNI-CA condition but not for BI-CA (p = 0.096, ES = 0.23, and p = 1.41, ES = 0.18). The stronger and weaker limb Achilles tendon stiffness significantly increased from pre-to post-CA during the UNI-CA condition (p = 0.013, ES = 0.60 and p < 0.001, ES = 0.79; respectively) but not for BI-CA (p = 0.66; ES = 0.15 and p = 0.265; ES = 0.42). Furthermore, the post-CA stronger limb Achilles tendon stiffness during the UNI-CA was significantly higher than that noted during the BI-CA (p = 0.006, ES = 0.7). The present study showed that combined isometric and plyometric bilateral CA effectively improved the countermovement jump but did not enhance the t-agility test performance. These findings indicate that exercise combinations could effectively produce a post-activation performance enhancement effect but should replicate the following explosive task as much as possible.