The cost of community outreach HIV interventions: a case study in Thailand.

BACKGROUND: There was an estimated 440,000 people living with HIV in Thailand in 2018. New cases are declining rapidly thanks to successful prevention programs and scaling up of anti-retroviral therapy (ART). Thailand aims to achieve its commitment to end the HIV epidemic by 2030 and implemented a cascade of HIV interventions through the Reach-Recruit-Test-Treat-Retain (RRTTR) program. METHODS: This study focused on community outreach HIV interventions implemented by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) under the RRTTR program in 27 provinces. We calculated unit cost per person reached for HIV interventions targeted at key-affected populations (KAPs) including men who have sex with men/ transgender (MSM/TG), male sex workers (MSW), female sex workers (FSW), people who inject drugs (PWID) and migrants (MW). We studied program key outputs, costs, and unit costs in variations across different HIV interventions and geographic locations in Thailand. We used these estimates to determine costs of HIV interventions and evaluate economies of scale. RESULTS: The interventions for migrants in Samut Sakhon was the least costly with a unit cost of 21.6 USD per person to receive services, followed by interventions for migrants in Samut Prakan 23.2 USD per person reached, MSM/TG in Pratum Thani 26.5USD per person reached, MSM/TG in Nonthaburi 26.6 USD per person reached and, MSM/TG in Chon Buri with 26.7 USD per person. The interventions yielded higher efficiency in large metropolitan and surrounding provinces. Harm reduction programs were the costliest compare with other interventions. There was association between unit cost and scale of among interventions indicating the presence of economies scale. Implementing HIV and TB interventions jointly increased efficiency for both cases. CONCLUSION: This study suggested that unit cost of community outreach HIV and TB interventions led by CSOs will decrease as they are scaled up. Further studies are suggested to follow up with these ongoing interventions for identifying potential contextual factors to improve efficiency of HIV prevention services in Thailand.

Utilization of Primary Health Care Under National Health Insurance in Samarinda Municipality, East Kalimantan Province, Indonesia.

Aim: In Indonesia, basic community health services are provided to all citizens through Primary Health Care (PHC) settings under the National Health Insurance (NHI) scheme. The insurance is compulsory and provides basic community health needs. Based on a gatekeeper concept, the PHC is deemed to be the first contact point for all basic healthcare needs. Despite the commencement of services through PHC settings in 2014 under this concept, utilization in PHC settings remains lower than in hospital settings. This study aimed to assess factors associated with utilization of PHC under National Health Insurance in Samarinda Municipality, East Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. Materials and Methods: The research examined the utilization of services over six months. It employed a cross-sectional method and included 382 NHI participants in 10 districts of Samarinda Municipality. Each district was divided into urban and semi-urban areas based upon local government indicators representing the whole research area. A two-stage random sampling and purposive sampling approach was implemented to select the sample. The participants were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Chi-square and multiple logistic regressions were conducted to determine the impact of factors on the utilization of PHC. Results: Only 17.3% of participants used PHC services regularly. Three constitutive factors, type of NHI participants (Adj. OR: 2.62; p<0.005), accommodation (Adj. OR: 2.18; p<0.005) and awareness (Adj. OR: 3.27; p<0.005) most profoundly influenced the under-utilization of PHC by NHI participants. Conclusion: The study found that the type of NHI participant and the utilization factors of accommodation and awareness significantly influenced the degree of utilization of PHC facilities by NHI participants and that the differences arose from variations in knowledge and experience. Strengthening these factors will rely upon an expanded role of government and community collaboration, emphasizing the needs of NHI participants.

Enrollment of dengue patients in a prospective cohort study in Umphang District, Thailand, during the COVID-19 pandemic: Implications for research and policy.

Background and Aims: Dengue is endemic in Thailand and imposes a high burden on the health system and society. We conducted a prospective cohort study in Umphang District, Tak Province, Thailand, to investigate the share of dengue cases with long symptoms and their duration. Here we present the results of the enrollment process during the COVID-19 pandemic with implications and challenges for research and policy. Methods: In a prospective cohort study conducted in Umphang District, Thailand, we examined the prevalence of persistent symptoms in dengue cases. Clinically diagnosed cases were offered free laboratory testing, We enrolled ambulatory dengue patients regardless of age who were confirmed through a highly sensitive laboratory strategy (positive NS1 and/or IgM), agreed to follow-up visits, and gave informed consent. We used multivariate logistic regressions to assess the probability of clinical dengue being laboratory confirmed. To determine the factors associated with study enrollment, we analyzed the relationship of patient characteristics and month of screening to the likelihood of participation. To identify underrepresented groups, we compared the enrolled cohort to external data sources. Results: The 150 clinical cases ranged from 1 to 85 years old. Most clinical cases (78%) were confirmed by a positive laboratory test, but only 19% of those confirmed enrolled in the cohort study. Women, who were half as likely to enroll as men, were underrepresented in the cohort. Conclusions: The Thai physicians' clinical diagnoses at this rural district hospital had good agreement with laboratory diagnoses. By identifying underrepresented groups and disparities, future studies can ensure the creation of statistically representative cohorts to maximize their scientific value. This involves recruiting and retaining underrepresented groups in health research, such as women in this study. Promising strategies for meaningful inclusion include multi-site enrollment, offering in-home or virtual services, and providing in-kind benefits like childcare for underrepresented groups.

Factors associated with the effectiveness of diabetes care at primary care settings.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effectiveness of diabetes care and the factors associated with the effectiveness at primary care settings. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Data were obtained from reviewing of 1,795 medical patient files of patients with type 2-DM treated at forty-eight primary care settings. Information recorded included characteristics, body mass index, co-morbidity, fasting blood glucose (FBG) and HbA1c levels and health personnel mix types (physicians, pharmacists, nurses, health technical officers and community health workers). HbA1c level of diabetes in 542 of 1,795 medical patient files were analyzed. Glycemic controllability of diabetes patients was defined using FBG and HbA1c levels as the effectiveness indicators of diabetes care. RESULTS: Of 1,795 patients, 40.8% were able to control their FBG levels and 22.7% of the 542 patients who have HbA1c data could control their HbA1c levels. Multivariate analysis confirmed that age and health personnel mix types are significant factors for glycemic controllability as measured by FBG level (p < 0.01). By measuring HbA1c level, age was also significant factor in diabetes care effectiveness (p = 0.012). CONCLUSION: Age was a significant factor in controlling both FBG and HbA1c levels in type 2 diabetes whereas health personnel, physicians and pharmacists, are significant factors in increasing effectiveness of diabetes care. The policy makers should consider distributing these health personnel to primary care settings and this would be a challenge for the policy makers to develop such a strategy and to implement this policy.

Cost of dengue cases in eight countries in the Americas and Asia: a prospective study.

Despite the growing worldwide burden of dengue fever, the global economic impact of dengue illness is poorly documented. Using a common protocol, we present the first multicountry estimates of the direct and indirect costs of dengue cases in eight American and Asian countries. We conducted prospective studies of the cost of dengue in five countries in the Americas (Brazil, El Salvador, Guatemala, Panama, and Venezuela) and three countries in Asia (Cambodia, Malaysia, and Thailand). All studies followed the same core protocol with interviews and medical record reviews. The study populations were patients treated in ambulatory and hospital settings with a clinical diagnosis of dengue. Most studies were performed in 2005. Costs are in 2005 international dollars (I$). We studied 1,695 patients (48% pediatric and 52% adult); none died. The average illness lasted 11.9 days for ambulatory patients and 11.0 days for hospitalized patients. Among hospitalized patients, students lost 5.6 days of school, whereas those working lost 9.9 work days per average dengue episode. Overall mean costs were I$514 and I$1,394 for an ambulatory and hospitalized case, respectively. With an annual average of 574,000 cases reported, the aggregate annual economic cost of dengue for the eight study countries is at least I$587 million. Preliminary adjustment for under-reporting could raise this total to $1.8 billion, and incorporating costs of dengue surveillance and vector control would raise the amount further. Dengue imposes substantial costs on both the health sector and the overall economy.

Cost of dengue in Thailand.

The burden of hospitalized dengue cases in Thailand is high. In Khon Kaen Hospital, a provincial hospital, the cost per non-fatal case in 2005 averaged (±standard deviation) US$ 573 (±351). The majority of this cost is incurred by the government, indicating the importance of dengue to public policy. The projected national cost is US$ 158 (±33) million or US$ 3.55 (±$0.53) per capita per year. In international dollars, which adjust for purchasing power parity, the annual cost is 485 (±106) million international dollars. Of this total, 28% is for vector control while 72% represents the cost of dengue illness. The substantial cost of dengue illness indicates the potential economic value of effective control measures.