Reconstruction of motor control circuits in adult Drosophila using automated transmission electron microscopy.

To investigate circuit mechanisms underlying locomotor behavior, we used serial-section electron microscopy (EM) to acquire a synapse-resolution dataset containing the ventral nerve cord (VNC) of an adult female Drosophila melanogaster. To generate this dataset, we developed GridTape, a technology that combines automated serial-section collection with automated high-throughput transmission EM. Using this dataset, we studied neuronal networks that control leg and wing movements by reconstructing all 507 motor neurons that control the limbs. We show that a specific class of leg sensory neurons synapses directly onto motor neurons with the largest-caliber axons on both sides of the body, representing a unique pathway for fast limb control. We provide open access to the dataset and reconstructions registered to a standard atlas to permit matching of cells between EM and light microscopy data. We also provide GridTape instrumentation designs and software to make large-scale EM more accessible and affordable to the scientific community.

Synaptic wiring motifs in posterior parietal cortex support decision-making.

The posterior parietal cortex exhibits choice-selective activity during perceptual decision-making tasks1-10. However, it is not known how this selective activity arises from the underlying synaptic connectivity. Here we combined virtual-reality behaviour, two-photon calcium imaging, high-throughput electron microscopy and circuit modelling to analyse how synaptic connectivity between neurons in the posterior parietal cortex relates to their selective activity. We found that excitatory pyramidal neurons preferentially target inhibitory interneurons with the same selectivity. In turn, inhibitory interneurons preferentially target pyramidal neurons with opposite selectivity, forming an opponent inhibition motif. This motif was present even between neurons with activity peaks in different task epochs. We developed neural-circuit models of the computations performed by these motifs, and found that opponent inhibition between neural populations with opposite selectivity amplifies selective inputs, thereby improving the encoding of trial-type information. The models also predict that opponent inhibition between neurons with activity peaks in different task epochs contributes to creating choice-specific sequential activity. These results provide evidence for how synaptic connectivity in cortical circuits supports a learned decision-making task.

Scalable electron tomography for connectomics.

We demonstrate limited-tilt, serial section electron tomography (ET), which can non-destructively map brain circuits over large 3D volumes and reveal high-resolution, supramolecular details within subvolumes of interest. We show accelerated ET imaging of thick sections (>500 nm) with the capacity to resolve key features of neuronal circuits including chemical synapses, endocytic structures, and gap junctions. Furthermore, we systematically assessed how imaging parameters affect image quality and speed to enable connectomic-scale projects.

X-Ray2EM: Uncertainty-Aware Cross-Modality Image Reconstruction from X-Ray to Electron Microscopy in Connectomics.

Comprehensive, synapse-resolution imaging of the brain will be crucial for understanding neuronal computations and function. In connectomics, this has been the sole purview of volume electron microscopy (EM), which entails an excruciatingly difficult process because it requires cutting tissue into many thin, fragile slices that then need to be imaged, aligned, and reconstructed. Unlike EM, hard X-ray imaging is compatible with thick tissues, eliminating the need for thin sectioning, and delivering fast acquisition, intrinsic alignment, and isotropic resolution. Unfortunately, current state-of-the-art X-ray microscopy provides much lower resolution, to the extent that segmenting membranes is very challenging. We propose an uncertainty-aware 3D reconstruction model that translates X-ray images to EM-like images with enhanced membrane segmentation quality, showing its potential for developing simpler, faster, and more accurate X-ray based connectomics pipelines.

Biomechanical origins of proprioceptor feature selectivity and topographic maps in the Drosophila leg.

Our ability to sense and move our bodies relies on proprioceptors, sensory neurons that detect mechanical forces within the body. Different subtypes of proprioceptors detect different kinematic features, such as joint position, movement, and vibration, but the mechanisms that underlie proprioceptor feature selectivity remain poorly understood. Using single-nucleus RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), we found that proprioceptor subtypes in the Drosophila leg lack differential expression of mechanosensitive ion channels. However, anatomical reconstruction of the proprioceptors and connected tendons revealed major biomechanical differences between subtypes. We built a model of the proprioceptors and tendons that identified a biomechanical mechanism for joint angle selectivity and predicted the existence of a topographic map of joint angle, which we confirmed using calcium imaging. Our findings suggest that biomechanical specialization is a key determinant of proprioceptor feature selectivity in Drosophila. More broadly, the discovery of proprioceptive maps reveals common organizational principles between proprioception and other topographically organized sensory systems.

Astrocyte-neuron crosstalk through Hedgehog signaling mediates cortical synapse development.

Neuron-glia interactions play a critical role in the regulation of synapse formation and circuit assembly. Here we demonstrate that canonical Sonic hedgehog (Shh) pathway signaling in cortical astrocytes acts to coordinate layer-specific synaptic connectivity. We show that the Shh receptor Ptch1 is expressed by cortical astrocytes during development and that Shh signaling is necessary and sufficient to promote the expression of genes involved in regulating synaptic development and layer-enriched astrocyte molecular identity. Loss of Shh in layer V neurons reduces astrocyte complexity and coverage by astrocytic processes in tripartite synapses; conversely, cell-autonomous activation of Shh signaling in astrocytes promotes cortical excitatory synapse formation. Furthermore, Shh-dependent genes Lrig1 and Sparc distinctively contribute to astrocyte morphology and synapse formation. Together, these results suggest that Shh secreted from deep-layer cortical neurons acts to specialize the molecular and functional features of astrocytes during development to shape circuit assembly and function.

Dense neuronal reconstruction through X-ray holographic nano-tomography.

Imaging neuronal networks provides a foundation for understanding the nervous system, but resolving dense nanometer-scale structures over large volumes remains challenging for light microscopy (LM) and electron microscopy (EM). Here we show that X-ray holographic nano-tomography (XNH) can image millimeter-scale volumes with sub-100-nm resolution, enabling reconstruction of dense wiring in Drosophila melanogaster and mouse nervous tissue. We performed correlative XNH and EM to reconstruct hundreds of cortical pyramidal cells and show that more superficial cells receive stronger synaptic inhibition on their apical dendrites. By combining multiple XNH scans, we imaged an adult Drosophila leg with sufficient resolution to comprehensively catalog mechanosensory neurons and trace individual motor axons from muscles to the central nervous system. To accelerate neuronal reconstructions, we trained a convolutional neural network to automatically segment neurons from XNH volumes. Thus, XNH bridges a key gap between LM and EM, providing a new avenue for neural circuit discovery.

Brain-wide Organization of Neuronal Activity and Convergent Sensorimotor Transformations in Larval Zebrafish.

Simultaneous recordings of large populations of neurons in behaving animals allow detailed observation of high-dimensional, complex brain activity. However, experimental approaches often focus on singular behavioral paradigms or brain areas. Here, we recorded whole-brain neuronal activity of larval zebrafish presented with a battery of visual stimuli while recording fictive motor output. We identified neurons tuned to each stimulus type and motor output and discovered groups of neurons in the anterior hindbrain that respond to different stimuli eliciting similar behavioral responses. These convergent sensorimotor representations were only weakly correlated to instantaneous motor activity, suggesting that they critically inform, but do not directly generate, behavioral choices. To catalog brain-wide activity beyond explicit sensorimotor processing, we developed an unsupervised clustering technique that organizes neurons into functional groups. These analyses enabled a broad overview of the functional organization of the brain and revealed numerous brain nuclei whose neurons exhibit concerted activity patterns.

Ion selectivity of graphene nanopores.

As population growth continues to outpace development of water infrastructure in many countries, desalination (the removal of salts from seawater) at high energy efficiency will likely become a vital source of fresh water. Due to its atomic thinness combined with its mechanical strength, porous graphene may be particularly well-suited for electrodialysis desalination, in which ions are removed under an electric field via ion-selective pores. Here, we show that single graphene nanopores preferentially permit the passage of K(+) cations over Cl(-) anions with selectivity ratios of over 100 and conduct monovalent cations up to 5 times more rapidly than divalent cations. Surprisingly, the observed K(+)/Cl(-) selectivity persists in pores even as large as about 20 nm in diameter, suggesting that high throughput, highly selective graphene electrodialysis membranes can be fabricated without the need for subnanometer control over pore size.

Electrical pulse fabrication of graphene nanopores in electrolyte solution.

Nanopores in graphene membranes can potentially offer unprecedented spatial resolution for single molecule sensing, but their fabrication has thus far been difficult, poorly scalable, and prone to contamination. We demonstrate an in-situ fabrication method that nucleates and controllably enlarges nanopores in electrolyte solution by applying ultra-short, high-voltage pulses across the graphene membrane. This method can be used to rapidly produce graphene nanopores with subnanometer size accuracy in an apparatus free of nanoscale beams or tips.

Paleomagnetism. Solar nebula magnetic fields recorded in the Semarkona meteorite.

Magnetic fields are proposed to have played a critical role in some of the most enigmatic processes of planetary formation by mediating the rapid accretion of disk material onto the central star and the formation of the first solids. However, there have been no experimental constraints on the intensity of these fields. Here we show that dusty olivine-bearing chondrules from the Semarkona meteorite were magnetized in a nebular field of 54 ± 21 microteslas. This intensity supports chondrule formation by nebular shocks or planetesimal collisions rather than by electric currents, the x-wind, or other mechanisms near the Sun. This implies that background magnetic fields in the terrestrial planet-forming region were likely 5 to 54 microteslas, which is sufficient to account for measured rates of mass and angular momentum transport in protoplanetary disks.

Nanometer-thin solid-state nanopores by cold ion beam sculpting.

Recent work on protein nanopores indicates that single molecule characterization (including DNA sequencing) is possible when the length of the nanopore constriction is about a nanometer. Solid-state nanopores offer advantages in stability and tunability, but a scalable method for creating nanometer-thin solid-state pores has yet to be demonstrated. Here we demonstrate that solid-state nanopores with nanometer-thin constrictions can be produced by "cold ion beam sculpting," an original method that is broadly applicable to many materials, is easily scalable, and requires only modest instrumentation.

An ancient core dynamo in asteroid Vesta.

The asteroid Vesta is the smallest known planetary body that has experienced large-scale igneous differentiation. However, it has been previously uncertain whether Vesta and similarly sized planetesimals formed advecting metallic cores and dynamo magnetic fields. Here we show that remanent magnetization in the eucrite meteorite Allan Hills A81001 formed during cooling on Vesta 3.69 billion years ago in a surface magnetic field of at least 2 microteslas. This field most likely originated from crustal remanence produced by an earlier dynamo, suggesting that Vesta formed an advecting liquid metallic core. Furthermore, the inferred present-day crustal fields can account for the lack of solar wind ion-generated space weathering effects on Vesta.