Biomimetic synthesis of the non-canonical PPAP natural products yezo'otogirin C and hypermogin D, and studies towards the synthesis of norascyronone A.

Oxidative degradation and rearrangement of polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinols (PPAPs) has created diverse families of unique natural products that are attractive targets for biomimetic synthesis. Herein, we report a racemic synthesis of hyperibrin A and its oxidative radical cyclization to give yezo'otogirin C, followed by epoxidation and House-Meinwald rearrangement to give hypermogin D. We also investigated the biomimetic synthesis of norascyronone A via a similar radical cyclization pathway, with unexpected results that give insight into its biosynthesis.

Dissecting Programmed Cell Death with Small Molecules.

Programmed cell death (PCD) is fundamentally an indispensable process in all cellular activities, including cell development, wound healing, and immune surveillance of tumors (Galluzzi, L. et al. Cell Death Differ. 2018, 25, 486-541). Malfunctioning of PCD has been shown to be closely related to human diseases such as acute pancreatitis, neurodegenerative diseases, and diverse types of cancers. To date, multiple PCD processes have been discovered and the corresponding regulatory pathways have been elucidated. For example, apoptosis and autophagy are two PCD mechanisms that have been well studied by sophisticated models and probe toolkits. However, limited genetic and chemical tools for other types of PCD hamper the elucidation of their molecular mechanisms. Our group has been studying PCD using both function-oriented synthesis and chemical biology strategies, including the development of diverse chemical probes based on novel PCD modulators. For instance, in the development of downstream programmed necrosis (or necroptosis) inhibitor necrosulfonamide, we used a chemical probe to unveil a functional protein that was not previously implicated in necroptosis, mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL). In addition, high throughput screening and medicinal chemistry enabled the discovery of bioymifi, a small molecule agonist which selectively causes oligomerization of the death receptor 5 (DR5), to induce extrinsic apoptosis. Furthermore, we developed a biomimetic synthetic strategy based on diverse Diels-Alder reactions in the total syntheses of ainsliadimers A and B, ainsliatrimers A and B, and gonchnatiolides A-C, which are natural product inhibitors or activators for PCD. Using synthetic ainsliadimer A probe, we elucidated that ainsliadimer A inhibits the NF-κB pathway by covalently binding to Cys46 of IKKß and triggers apoptosis of cancer cells. We have also revealed that IKKß is allosterically inhibited by ainsliadimer A. In addition to total synthesis, we have developed a bioorthogonal click hetero-Diels-Alder cycloaddition of vinyl thioether and o-quinolinone quinone methide (TQ-ligation) to facilitate small molecule target identification. The combination of total synthesis and TQ-ligation enables subcellular imaging and identification of the cellular target of ainsliatrimer A to be PPARγ. In addition, TQ-ligation has been applied in the discovery of heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) as one of the functional target proteins for kongensin A. We also confirmed that kongensin A covalently attaches to Cys420 within HSP90 and demonstrated that kongensin A blocks the interaction between HSP90 and CDC37 and subsequently inhibits necroptosis. Our development of these diverse PCD modulators provides not only effective chemical tools for fundamental biomedical research, but also the foundation for drug discovery targeting important human diseases such as cancers and inflammation caused by malfunction of PCD.

Biomimetic Synthesis of Rhytidenone†A and Mode of Action of Cytotoxic Rhytidenone†F.

The rhytidenone family comprises spirobisnaphthalene natural products isolated from the mangrove endophytic fungus Rhytidhysteron rufulum AS21B. The biomimetic synthesis of rhytidenone A was achieved by a Michael reaction/aldol/lactonization cascade in a single step from the proposed biosynthetic precursor rhytidenone F. Moreover, the mode of action of the highly cytotoxic rhytidenone F was investigated. The pulldown assay coupled with mass spectrometry analysis revealed the target protein PA28γ is covalently attached to rhytidenone F at the Cys92 residue. The interactions of rhytidenone F with PA28γ lead to the accumulation of p53, which is an essential tumor suppressor in humans. Consequently, the Fas-dependent signaling pathway is activated to initiate cellular apoptosis. These studies have identified the first small-molecule inhibitor targeting PA28γ, suggesting rhytidenone F may serve as a promising natural product lead for future anticancer drug development.

Biomimetic and Biocatalytic Synthesis of Bruceol.

The first total synthesis of bruceol has been achieved using a biomimetic cascade cyclization initiated by a stereoselective Jacobsen-Katsuki epoxidation (and kinetic resolution) of racemic protobruceol-I. A bacterial cytochrome P450 monooxygenase was also found to catalyze the conversion of protobruceol-I into bruceol. The first full analysis of the NMR data of natural bruceol suggested that "isobruceol" was a previously unrecognized natural product also isolated from Philotheca brucei. This was confirmed by the re-isolation, synthesis, and X-ray analysis of isobruceol. In total, eight stereoisomers and structural isomers of bruceol have been synthesized in a highly divergent approach.

Biosynthetically-inspired oxidations of capillobenzopyranol.

The synthesis of verrubenzospirolactone from its proposed biosynthetic precursor, capillobenzopyranol, has been shown to be chemically feasible via a simple reaction sequence. The key steps are a chemoselective furan oxidation mediated by NaClO2, a stereoselective dehydration of a γ-methoxybutenolide, and an intramolecular Diels-Alder reaction.

Biomimetic Total Synthesis of (±)-Verrubenzospirolactone.

A five-step total synthesis of (±)-verrubenzospirolactone has been achieved using a biomimetic, intramolecular Diels-Alder reaction of a 2H-chromene to form two rings and four stereocenters in the final step. This Diels-Alder reaction occurs spontaneously at 30 °C "on-water", and thus suggests that it is likely to be non-enzymatic in nature. The structure of (±)-verrubenzospirolactone was also used to inspire a quadruple cascade reaction to generate seven stereocenters, four rings, three C-C bonds, and two C-O bonds in one step.

Biomimetic Total Synthesis of Hyperjapones†A-E and Hyperjaponols†A and†C.

Hyperjapones A-E and hyperjaponols A-C are complex natural products of mixed aromatic polyketide and terpene biosynthetic origin that have recently been isolated from Hypericum japonicum. We have synthesized hyperjapones A-E using a biomimetic, oxidative hetero-Diels-Alder reaction to couple together dearomatized acylphloroglucinol and cyclic terpene natural products. Hyperjapone A is proposed to be the biosynthetic precursor of hyperjaponol C through a sequence of: 1) epoxidation; 2) acid-catalyzed epoxide ring-opening; and 3) a concerted, asynchronous alkene cyclization and 1,2-alkyl shift of a tertiary carbocation. Chemical mimicry of this proposed biosynthetic sequence allowed a concise total synthesis of hyperjaponol C to be completed in which six carbon-carbon bonds, six stereocenters, and three rings were constructed in just four steps.

Biomimetic total synthesis of (±)-yezo'otogirin A.

The total synthesis of yezo'otogirin A has been achieved via a biosynthetically-inspired strategy. Diastereoselective synthesis of pre-yezo'otogirin A, the proposed biosynthetic pre-cursor of yezo'otogirin A, was accomplished in eight steps from 3-ethoxy-2-cyclohexenone. A biomimetic oxidative radical cyclization was then used to construct the unique tricyclic ring system of yezo'otogirin A. The synthesis showcases the ability of biomimetic radical cyclizations to generate complex natural products from unprotected intermediates.

Biomimetic Total Synthesis of Rhodonoids C and D, and Murrayakonine D.

A divergent, three-step total synthesis of rhodonoids C and D has been achieved using a biosynthetically inspired, acid-catalyzed cascade cyclization of an epoxy-chromene that involves the presumed intermediacy of o-quinone methides. Application of a similar strategy also allowed synthesis of the alkaloid murrayakonine D.

Biomimetic total synthesis of (±)-garcibracteatone.

The polycyclic polyprenylated acylphloroglucinol natural product garcibracteatone has been synthesized in four steps from phloroglucinol, using a strategy based on biosynthetic speculation. The key biomimetic transformation is a cascade of 7-endo-trig and 5-exo-trig radical cyclizations followed by a terminating aromatic substitution reaction.