Comparison of miRNA Expression Profiles between HIV-1 and HIV-2 Infected Monocyte-Derived Macrophages (MDMs) and Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMCs).

During the progression of HIV-1 infection, macrophage tropic HIV-1 that use the CCR5 co-receptor undergoes a change in co-receptor use to CXCR4 that is predominately T cell tropic. This change in co-receptor preference makes the virus able to infect T cells. HIV-2 is known to infect MDMs and T cells and is dual tropic. The aim of this study was to elucidate the differential expression profiles of host miRNAs and their role in cells infected with HIV-1/HIV-2. To achieve this goal, a comparative global miRNA expression profile was determined in human PBMCs and MDMs infected with HIV-1/HIV-2. Differentially expressed miRNAs were identified in HIV-1/HIV-2 infected PBMCs and MDMs using the next-generation sequencing (NGS) technique. A comparative global miRNA expression profile in infected MDMs and PBMCs with HIV-1 and HIV-2 identified differential expression of several host miRNAs. These differentially expressed miRNAs are likely to be involved in many signaling pathways, like the p53 signaling pathway, PI3K-Akt signaling pathways, MAPK signaling pathways, FoxO signaling pathway, and viral carcinogenesis. Thus, a comparative study of the differential expression of host miRNAs in MDMs and T cell in response to HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection will help us to identify unique biomarkers that can differentiate HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection.

Modulation of HIV Replication in Monocyte-Derived Macrophages (MDM) by Host Antiviral Factors Secretory Leukocyte Protease Inhibitor and Serpin Family C Member 1 Induced by Steroid Hormones.

The impact of steroid hormones estrogen and progesterone on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication is well documented. However, the exact mechanism involved in the regulation of HIV-1 replication by estrogen and progesterone is still unclear. In the present study, we wanted to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the modulation of HIV-1 replication by estrogen and progesterone. To achieve this goal, we used real-time quantitative PCR arrays (PCR arrays) to identify differentially expressed host genes in response to hormone treatments that are involved in antiviral responses. Our in vitro results suggest that treatment with high doses of estrogen and progesterone promotes the expression of host antiviral factors Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) and Serpin family C member 1 (SERPIN C1) among others produced in response to HIV-1 infection. SLPI is an enzyme that inhibits human leukocyte elastase, human cathepsin G, human trypsin, neutrophil elastase, and mast cell chymase. SERPIN C1 is a plasma protease inhibitor that regulates the blood coagulation cascade by the inhibition of thrombin and other activated serine proteases of the coagulation system. A dose dependent downmodulation of HIV-1 replication was observed in monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) pre-treated with the two proteins SLPI and SERPIN C1. Further investigations suggests that the host antiviral factors, SLPI and SERPIN C1 act at the pre-integration stage, inhibiting HIV-1 viral entry and leading to the observed downmodulation of HIV-1 replication. Our studies would help identify molecular mechanisms and pathways involved in HIV-1 pathogenesis.

Identification of new, emerging HIV-1 unique recombinant forms and drug resistant viruses circulating in Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: The HIV epidemic in Cameroon is characterized by a high degree of viral genetic diversity with circulating recombinant forms (CRFs) being predominant. The goal of our study was to determine recent trends in virus evolution and emergence of drug resistance in blood donors and HIV positive patients. METHODOLOGY: Blood specimens of 73 individuals were collected from three cities and a few villages in Cameroon and viruses were isolated by co-cultivation with PBMCs. Nested PCR was performed for gag p17 (670 bp) pol (840 bp) and Env gp41 (461 bp) genes. Sequences were phylogenetically analyzed using a reference set of sequences from the Los Alamos database. RESULTS: Phylogenetic analysis based on partial sequences revealed that 65% (n = 48) of strains were CRF02_AG, 4% (n = 3) subtype F2, 1% each belonged to CRF06 (n = 1), CRF11 (n = 1), subtype G (n = 1), subtype D (n = 1), CRF22_01A1 (n = 1), and 26% (n = 18) were Unique Recombinant Forms (URFs). Most URFs contained CRF02_AG in one or two HIV gene fragments analyzed. Furthermore, pol sequences of 61 viruses revealed drug resistance in 55.5% of patients on therapy and 44% of drug naïve individuals in the RT and protease regions. Overall URFs that had a primary HIV subtype designation in the pol region showed higher HIV-1 p24 levels than other recombinant forms in cell culture based replication kinetics studies. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that although CRF02_AG continues to be the predominant strain in Cameroon, phylogenetically the HIV epidemic is continuing to evolve as multiple recombinants of CRF02_AG and URFs were identified in the individuals studied. CRF02_AG recombinants that contained the pol region of a primary subtype showed higher replicative advantage than other variants. Identification of drug resistant strains in drug-naïve patients suggests that these viruses are being transmitted in the population studied. Our findings support the need for continued molecular surveillance in this region of West Central Africa and investigating impact of variants on diagnostics, viral load and drug resistance assays on an ongoing basis.

XMRV: usage of receptors and potential co-receptors.

BACKGROUND: XMRV is a gammaretrovirus first identified in prostate tissues of Prostate Cancer (PC) patients and later in the blood cells of patients with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS). Although XMRV is thought to use XPR1 for cell entry, it infects A549 cells that do not express XPR1, suggesting usage of other receptors or co-receptors. METHODS: To study the usage of different receptors and co- receptors that could play a role in XMRV infection of lymphoid cells and GHOST (GFP- Human osteosarcoma) cells expressing CD4 along with different chemokine receptors including CCR1, CCR2, etc., were infected with XMRV. Culture supernatants and cells were tested for XMRV replication using real time quantitative PCR. RESULTS: Infection and replication of XMRV was seen in a variety of GHOST cells, LNCaP, DU145, A549 and Caski cell lines. The levels of XMRV replication varied in different cell lines showing differential replication in different cell lines. However, replication in A549 which lacks XPR1 expression was relatively higher than DU145 but lower than, LNCaP. XMRV replication varied in GHOST cell lines expressing CD4 and each of the co- receptors CCR1-CCR8 and bob. There was significant replication of XMRV in CCR3 and Bonzo although it is much lower when compared to DU145, A549 and LNCaP. CONCLUSION: XMRV replication was observed in GHOST cells that express CD4 and each of the chemokine receptors ranging from CCR1- CCR8 and BOB suggesting that infectivity in hematopoietic cells could be mediated by use of these receptors.

Identification, Genetic Characterization and Validation of Highly Diverse HIV-1 Viruses for Reference Panel Development.

The continued diversification of HIV poses potentially significant challenges to HIV diagnostics and therapeutics. The dynamic evolution of emerging variants is highlighted in countries such as Cameroon in West Central Africa, where all known subtypes and circulating recombinant forms (CRFs) have been shown to be prevalent. We obtained several hundred HIV-positive plasma and viruses from this region for characterization and identification of highly divergent HIV strains. A total of 163 viral strains were cultured to high titers and high volumes using donor peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Initially, 101 viruses representing 59 strains were well characterized and categorized. Results showed that the viral load (VL) range was 0.36-398.9 × 107 copies/mL, p24 values was 0.2-1134 ng/mL. Phylogenetic analysis of thirty-six near full-length HIV-1 genomic sequences demonstrated that most recombinants were highly diverse CRF02 containing unique recombinant forms (URFs). There were seven viral isolates identified as pure subtype/sub-subtypes (F2, A1, G, and D), six as CRFs (CRF06, CRF18, and CRF22), and ten as URFs. These extensively characterized reagents reflect the current dynamic and complex HIV epidemic in Cameroon and provide valuable insights into the potential phylogenetic evolutionary trend of global HIV molecular epidemiology in the future. These materials may be useful for development of HIV validation and reference panels to evaluate the performance of serologic antigen and nucleic acid assays for their ability to detect and quantitate highly divergent HIV strains.

Inhibition of adult rat retinal ganglion cells by D1-type dopamine receptor activation.

The spike output of neural pathways can be regulated by modulating output neuron excitability and/or their synaptic inputs. Dopaminergic interneurons synapse onto cells that route signals to mammalian retinal ganglion cells, but it is unknown whether dopamine can activate receptors in these ganglion cells and, if it does, how this affects their excitability. Here, we show D(1a) receptor-like immunoreactivity in ganglion cells identified in adult rats by retrogradely transported dextran, and that dopamine, D(1)-type receptor agonists, and cAMP analogs inhibit spiking in ganglion cells dissociated from adult rats. These ligands curtailed repetitive spiking during constant current injections and reduced the number and rate of rise of spikes elicited by fluctuating current injections without significantly altering the timing of the remaining spikes. Consistent with mediation by D(1)-type receptors, SCH-23390 [R-(+)-7-chloro-8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1-phenyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydro-1H-3-benzazepine] reversed the effects of dopamine on spikes. Contrary to a recent report, spike inhibition by dopamine was not precluded by blocking I(h). Consistent with the reduced rate of spike rise, dopamine reduced voltage-gated Na(+) current (I(Na)) amplitude, and tetrodotoxin, at doses that reduced I(Na) as moderately as dopamine, also inhibited spiking. These results provide the first direct evidence that D(1)-type dopamine receptor activation can alter mammalian retinal ganglion cell excitability and demonstrate that dopamine can modulate spikes in these cells by a mechanism different from the presynaptic and postsynaptic means proposed by previous studies. To our knowledge, our results also provide the first evidence that dopamine receptor activation can reduce excitability without altering the temporal precision of spike firing.

Biotin Interference in Point of Care HIV Immunoassay.

The use of high concentrations of biotin as a dietary supplement to improve hair, skin, and nail quality has increased in the United States over the past few years. High concentrations of biotin have been shown to interfere with some diagnostic assays that use streptavidin-biotin interactions as one of the steps in the assay. The objective of this report is to evaluate potential biotin interference on the analytical and clinical sensitivity of a point of care (POC) antigen-antibody combo HIV-1 assay. We spiked biotin at concentrations ranging from 12.5 to 400 ng/mL into serum and plasma containing HIV-1 subtype B p24 antigen derived from culture supernatant. The p24 antigen was present in the matrices at 30 pg/mL. Fifty microliters of each sample was applied to Alere Determine HIV-1/2 Ag/Ab combo assay strips in duplicate and results were read by eye after 20 to 30 min. Biotin interfered with detection of HIV-1 p24 in serum and plasma. HIV-1 p24 was not detected at 30 pg/mL p24 when biotin was present at 200 ng/mL concentration. Our study demonstrated that elevated levels of biotin in samples may interfere with POC assays. It is important to consider biotin supplements as potential sources of falsely increased or decreased test results, especially in cases wherein supplementation cannot be ruled out.

c-FLIPL regulates PKC via AP-2 to inhibit Bax-mediated apoptosis induced by HIV-1 gp120 in Jurkat cells.

c-FLIPL, an inhibitor of caspase 8, is known to inhibit the Fas/caspase 8 apoptotic pathway; however, its involvement of Bax/mitochondrial apoptosis is not well understood. Using human cells, Jurkat cell line, induced with HIV-1 gp120, we studied the effects of c-FLIPL on Bax/mitochondrial apoptosis. We found that the induction of apoptosis by HIV-1 envelope protein, gp120, involved the activation of both Bax-dependent and death receptor-mediated pathways, and HIV-1 infection deceased c-FLIPL expression. Interestingly, c-FLIPL expression downregulated protein kinase C (PKC) expression at the transcript level involving activated protein-2 (AP-2). c-FLIPL expression reduced AP-2 protein levels required to promote PKC protein expression and PKC-associated inactive form of Bax, and inhibited Bax activation, suggesting that c-FLIPL inhibits Bax activation via modulating PKC expression at the transcriptional level involving AP-2 during gp120 treatment. Collectively, these findings further corroborate the concept that gp120 plays an important role, via involvement of molecules such as c-FLIPL, in apoptotic cell death due to HIV-1 infection.

Comparative analysis of cell culture and prediction algorithms for phenotyping of genetically diverse HIV-1 strains from Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: With the advent of entry inhibitors, monitoring of viral tropism in the clinical setting is important. Conventional methods are cell-based and lengthy, therefore V3 sequence based prediction algorithms are becoming increasingly attractive as monitoring tools. Here we report a comparative analysis of viral tropism of strains circulating in Cameroon where diverse and emerging variant strains are prevalent. METHODS: Viruses were isolated from 17 HIV positive individuals from three cities in Cameroon. Ghost cell lines expressing either CCR5 or CXCR4 with CD4 or CD4 alone (NIH AIDS Reagent Program) were used to determine co-receptor usage. HIV replication was determined by measuring p24 antigen levels. Plasma viral load (VL) was determined using the Versant bDNA assay. Nucleotide sequencing was performed on the V3 region and sequences were edited, aligned and translated into amino acids as described in the algorithm. Bio-informatics tools based on the 11/25 and charge rule were used to predict co-receptor usage. RESULTS: The majority of patient isolates in our study were CRF02_AG or CRF02_AG containing recombinants. Tropism of these complex viruses based on the cell culture assay was determined to be R5 in 15/17 (88.2%) patients. However, two patient isolates were dual tropic R5X4 and had drug-specific mutations. Of these two patients, one was on antiretroviral treatment with a VL of 20,899 copies/ml and the other was drug-naïve with 141,198 copies/ml. Genotype based prediction was overall in good agreement with phenotype for R5 viruses, where 93% (14/15) of results were comparable, dual tropic viruses being reported as X4 viruses by prediction. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that most HIV strains in Cameroon were R5 tropic and some harbored drug-resistant mutations. V3 sequence based prediction compared well with cell based assays for R5 strains and may be useful even in settings where highly diverse strains are prevalent.

Development and validation of plasma miRNA biomarker signature panel for the detection of early HIV-1 infection.

BACKGROUND: Accurate laboratory diagnosis of HIV is essential to reduce the risk of HIV-positive individuals transmitting HIV-1 infection. The goal of this study was to identify and assess a panel of host derived plasma miRNAs that could to serve as a prognostic and predictive biomarker to detect early/acute HIV-1 infection. METHODS: A total of 372 microRNAs were analyzed in nine plasma samples from HIV-1 infected individuals in the early phase of infection and three healthy controls using the miRNA PCR-array. Seventeen microRNAs were selected and validated in 80 plasma samples from HIV-1 infected individuals in the early phase of infection (20 each of eclipse stage, RNA+ stage, Ag + stage, and Ag + Ab+ stage of HIV-1 patients) and 25 healthy controls. Using the validation study results a plasma miRNA panel was developed and evaluated to detect early/acute HIV-1 infection in 49 blinded samples. FINDING: We identified an miRNA panel (PeHIV-1) containing four differentially expressed miRNAs (miR-16-5p, miR-20b-5p, miR-195-5p, and miR-223-3p) that could distinguish early HIV-1 infection from healthy controls with high AUC (1·000[1·00-1·00]), sensitivity (100%), and specificity (100%).We also found that miR-223-3p demonstrates 100% sensitivity and specificity (AUC 1·00[1·00-1·00]) and could distinguish eclipse stage of HIV-1 infection from healthy controls. To detect eclipse stage of HIV-1 infection we also developed a four-miRNA based (miR-16-5p, miR-206, let-7 g-3p, and miR-181c-3p) panel (PE) with AUC 0·999 (0·995-1·000), 100% sensitivity and 95·8% specificity. INTERPRETATION: The miRNA panel, PeHIV-1 is a potential biomarker for detecting early/acute stage of HIV-1infection and could help initiate early antiretroviral treatment, thus preventing the spread of HIV-1 infection.

Modulation of HIV replication in monocyte derived macrophages (MDM) by steroid hormones.

Significant sex specific differences in the progression of HIV/AIDS have been reported. Several studies have implicated steroid hormones in regulating host factor expression and modulating HIV transmission and replication. However, the exact mechanism exerted by steroid hormones estrogen and progesterone in the regulation of HIV-1 replication is still unclear. Results from the current study indicated a dose dependent down regulation of HIV-1 replication in monocyte derived macrophages pre-treated with high concentrations of estrogen or progesterone. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms associated with the down regulation of HIV-1 replication by estrogen and progesterone we used PCR arrays to analyze the expression profile of host genes involved in antiviral responses. Several chemokines, cytokines, transcription factors, interferon stimulated genes and genes involved in type-1 interferon signaling were down regulated in cells infected with HIV-1 pre-treated with high concentrations of estrogen or progesterone compared to untreated HIV-1 infected cells or HIV-1 infected cells treated with low concentrations of estrogen or progesterone. The down regulation of CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 chemokines and IL-1ß, IL-6 cytokines in response to high concentrations of estrogen and progesterone pre-treatment in HIV-1 infected cells was confirmed at the protein level by quantitating chemokine and cytokine concentrations in the culture supernatant. These results demonstrate that a potent anti-inflammatory response is mediated by pre-treatment with high concentrations of estrogen and progesterone. Thus, our study suggests a strong correlation between the down-modulation of anti-viral and pro-inflammatory responses mediated by estrogen and progesterone pre-treatment and the down regulation of HIV-1 replication. These findings may be relevant to clinical observations of sex specific differences in patient populations and point to the need for further investigation.

Differentially expressed host long intergenic noncoding RNA and mRNA in HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection.

Non-coding RNAs and mRNAs have been implicated in replication, pathogenesis and host response in HIV infection. However, the impact of long intergenic non-coding RNAs (lincRNAs) on HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection is not known. In this study, we have analyzed expression profiles of lincRNAs and mRNAs in monocyte derived macrophages (MDMs) infected with HIV-1/HIV-2 using microarrays. Our study identified many differentially expressed lincRNAs and mRNAs in MDMs infected with HIV-1/HIV-2 compared to uninfected MDMs. Genes involved in glutathione metabolism and lysine degradation were differentially regulated only in HIV-1 infected MDMs. In HIV-2 infected MDMs, CUL 2, SFRS9, and RBBP4 genes were differentially expressed. Furthermore, we found that plasma levels of lincRNA: chr2: 165509129-165519404 and lincRNA: chr12: 57761837-57762303 were better indicators of HIV-1 infection while lincRNA: chr10:128586385-128592960, XLOC_001148 and lincRNA: chr5:87580664-87583451, were better indicators of HIV-2 infection. In summary, our study has demonstrated that there is substantial alteration in lincRNA and mRNA expression in response to HIV-1/HIV-2 infection. These differentially expressed lincRNAs and mRNAs could serve as prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers of HIV infection and help in the identification of new targets for therapy.

Development and evaluation of HIV-1 subtype RNA panels for the standardization of HIV-1 NAT assays.

Multiple nucleic acid-based techniques (NAT) have been implemented for testing blood and plasma donors for HIV-1 RNA which may be detected at an earlier stage of infection when HIV antigen or antibody is absent or below the limit of detection of current assays. The available NAT assays are based on different technologies. In order to evaluate the performance of nucleic acid-based techniques (NAT assays) and to allow accurate comparisons of results from different assays, it is essential to have well characterized specimens with known copy numbers as a standard. For this purpose, a comprehensive study was conducted to develop two HIV-1 RNA reference panels. The first (Panel 1) was prepared using a single specimen from the HIV-1 group M subtype B and consists of panel members with a wide range of HIV-1 RNA copy numbers. Panel 2 consists of 26 members representing HIV-1 group M subtypes A, C, D, E, F, G and groups O and N. For accurate determination of HIV-1 RNA copy numbers of each member of Panel 2, they were analyzed using various testing platforms/technologies available through the cooperation of five independent laboratories participating in the study. A consensus value for HIV RNA copy number was assigned to each member of Panel 2 based on statistical analysis of the data provided by the participants. Both panels could serve as reference panels to be used by manufacturers of HIV NAT tests to evaluate the sensitivity limits of their assays.

Identification of Host Micro RNAs That Differentiate HIV-1 and HIV-2 Infection Using Genome Expression Profiling Techniques.

While human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2) share many similar traits, major differences in pathogenesis and clinical outcomes exist between the two viruses. The differential expression of host factors like microRNAs (miRNAs) in response to HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections are thought to influence the clinical outcomes presented by the two viruses. MicroRNAs are small non-coding RNA molecules which function in transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. MiRNAs play a critical role in many key biological processes and could serve as putative biomarker(s) for infection. Identification of miRNAs that modulate viral life cycle, disease progression, and cellular responses to infection with HIV-1 and HIV-2 could reveal important insights into viral pathogenesis and provide new tools that could serve as prognostic markers and targets for therapeutic intervention. The aim of this study was to elucidate the differential expression profiles of host miRNAs in cells infected with HIV-1 and HIV-2 in order to identify potential differences in virus-host interactions between HIV-1 and HIV-2. Differential expression of host miRNA expression profiles was analyzed using the miRNA profiling polymerase chain reaction (PCR) arrays. Differentially expressed miRNAs were identified and their putative functional targets identified. The results indicate that hsa-miR 541-3p, hsa-miR 518f-3p, and hsa-miR 195-3p were consistently up-regulated only in HIV-1 infected cells. The expression of hsa-miR 1225-5p, hsa-miR 18a* and hsa-miR 335 were down modulated in HIV-1 and HIV-2 infected cells. Putative functional targets of these miRNAs include genes involved in signal transduction, metabolism, development and cell death.

Analysis of Host Gene Expression Profile in HIV-1 and HIV-2 Infected T-Cells.

HIV replication is closely regulated by a complex pathway of host factors, many of them being determinants of cell tropism and host susceptibility to HIV infection. These host factors are known to exert a positive or negative influence on the replication of the two major types of HIV, HIV-1 and HIV-2, thereby modulating virus infectivity, host response to infection and ultimately disease progression profiles characteristic of these two types. Understanding the differential regulation of host cellular factors in response to HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections will help us to understand the apparent differences in rates of disease progression and pathogenesis. This knowledge would aid in the discovery of new biomarkers that may serve as novel targets for therapy and diagnosis. The objective of this study was to determine the differential expression of host genes in response to HIV-1/HIV-2 infection. To achieve this, we analyzed the effects of HIV-1 (MN) and HIV-2 (ROD) infection on the expression of host factors in PBMC at the RNA level using the Agilent Whole Human Genome Oligo Microarray. Differentially expressed genes were identified and their biological functions determined. Host gene expression profiles were significantly changed. Gene expression profiling analysis identified a subset of differentially expressed genes in HIV-1 and HIV-2 infected cells. Genes involved in cellular metabolism, apoptosis, immune cell proliferation and activation, cytokines, chemokines, and transcription factors were differentially expressed in HIV-1 infected cells. Relatively few genes were differentially expressed in cells infected with HIV-2.

Seroprevalence of human T cell leukemia virus in HIV antibody-negative populations in rural Cameroon.

Seven hundred forty-seven serum samples collected from humans in 4 separate rural village areas in Cameroon were examined for antibody to human T cell leukemia viruses (HTLVs) by use of an enzyme immunoassay followed by a Western blot assay. Of the 88 serum samples that the enzyme immunoassay found to be repeatedly reactive, the HTLV status of 49 samples was confirmed by Western blot assay to be HTLV type I, and the status of 6 samples was confirmed to be HTLV type II.

DARPP-32-like immunoreactivity in AII amacrine cells of rat retina.

Previous studies demonstrated that the dopamine- and adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate-regulated phosphatase inhibitor known as "DARPP-32" is present in rat, cat, monkey, and human retinas. We have followed up these studies by asking what specific cell subtypes contain DARPP-32. Using a polyclonal antibody directed against a peptide sequence of human DARPP-32, we immunostained adult rat retinas that were either transretinally sectioned or flat mounted and found DARPP-32-like immunoreactivity in some cells of the amacrine cell layer across the entire retinal surface. We report here, based on the shape and spatial distribution of these cells, their staining by an anti-parvalbumin antibody, and their juxtaposition with processes containing tyrosine hydroxylase, that DARPP-32-like immunoreactivity is present in AII amacrine cells of rat retina. These results suggest that the response of AII amacrine cells to dopamine is not mediated as simply as previously supposed.

HIV type 2 primary isolates induce a lower degree of apoptosis "in vitro" compared with HIV type 1 primary isolates.

To determine whether subtypes of HIV-1 and HIV-2 vary in their ability to induce T cell apoptosis in vitro, human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from healthy donors and CEM.NKR-CCR5 cells were infected with a variety of HIV-1 and HIV-2 isolates in vitro. Apoptotic cell levels and chemokine and cytokine production were analyzed. Significant variations in cytopathic effects following in vitro infection with primary isolates of HIV-1 or HIV-2 subtypes were observed in PBMCs. The percent of apoptotic cells from each individual ranged from 2 to 78% after HIV-1 infection and from 0 to 28% after HIV-2 infection (p < 0.01). We did not observe significant differences in the degree of apoptosis induced among cells infected with different HIV-1 group M subtypes or group O virus, nor among cells infected with different HIV-2 isolates. However, HIV-2 induced significantly lower degree of apoptosis overall in PBMC and CEM.NKR-CC5 cells when compared with HIV-1 subtypes (p < 0.0001). No significant differences were observed in the production of chemokines, such as RANTES, MIP-1alpha, and MIP-1beta, and cytokines, such as TNF-alpha and TNF-beta when PBMC cultures were infected with different HIV-1 subtype viruses, or HIV-2 isolates. In conclusion, HIV-2 isolates induced significantly lower levels of T cell apoptosis in both PBMC and CEM.NKR-CCR5 cells than HIV-1 isolates. No differences in T cell apoptosis levels were seen between different subtypes of HIV-1 group M or group O isolates. This is consistent with the mild clinical course of infection with HIV-2 that has been reported relative to that observed with HIV-1.

Genotypic prediction of tropism of highly diverse HIV-1 strains from Cameroon.

BACKGROUND: The use of CCR5 antagonists involves determination of HIV-1 tropism prior to initiation of treatment. HIV-1 tropism can be assessed either by phenotypic or genotypic methods. Genotypic methods are extensively used for tropism prediction. However, their validation in predicting tropism of viral isolates belonging to group M non-B subtypes remains challenging. In Cameroon, the genetic diversity of HIV-1 strains is the broadest reported worldwide. To facilitate the integration of CCR5 antagonists into clinical practice in this region, there is a need to evaluate the performance of genotypic methods for predicting tropism of highly diverse group M HIV-1 strains. METHODS: Tropism of diverse HIV-1 strains isolated from PBMCs from Cameroon was determined using the GHOST cell assay. Prediction, based on V3 sequences from matched plasma samples, was determined using bioinformatics algorithms and rules based on position 11/25 and net charge applied independently or combined according to Delobel's and Garrido's rules. Performance of genotypic methods was evaluated by comparing prediction generated with tropism assigned by the phenotypic assay. RESULTS: Specificity for predicting R5-tropic virus was high, ranging from 83.7% to 97.7% depending on the genotypic methods used. Sensitivity for X4-tropic viruses was fairly low, ranging from 33.3% to 50%. In our study, overall, genotypic methods were less able to accurately predict X4-tropic virus belonging to subtype CRF02_AG. In addition, it was found that of the methods we used the Garrido rule has the highest sensitivity rate of over 50% with a specificity of 93%. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrated that overall, genotypic methods were less sensitive for accurate prediction of HIV-1 tropism in settings where diverse HIV-1 strains co-circulate. Our data suggest that further optimization of genotypic methods is needed and that larger studies to determine their utility for tropism prediction of diverse HIV-1 strains may be warranted.