Human Immunodeficiency Virus Continuum of Care in 11 European Union Countries at the End of 2016 Overall and by Key Population: Have We Made Progress?

BACKGROUND: High uptake of antiretroviral treatment (ART) is essential to reduce human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission and related mortality; however, gaps in care exist. We aimed to construct the continuum of HIV care (CoC) in 2016 in 11 European Union (EU) countries, overall and by key population and sex. To estimate progress toward the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) 90-90-90 target, we compared 2016 to 2013 estimates for the same countries, representing 73% of the population in the region. METHODS: A CoC with the following 4 stages was constructed: number of people living with HIV (PLHIV); proportion of PLHIV diagnosed; proportion of those diagnosed who ever initiated ART; and proportion of those ever treated who achieved viral suppression at their last visit. RESULTS: We estimated that 87% of PLHIV were diagnosed; 92% of those diagnosed had ever initiated ART; and 91% of those ever on ART, or 73% of all PLHIV, were virally suppressed. Corresponding figures for men having sex with men were: 86%, 93%, 93%, 74%; for people who inject drugs: 94%, 88%, 85%, 70%; and for heterosexuals: 86%, 92%, 91%, 72%. The proportion suppressed of all PLHIV ranged from 59% to 86% across countries. CONCLUSIONS: The EU is close to the 90-90-90 target and achieved the UNAIDS target of 73% of all PLHIV virally suppressed, significant progress since 2013 when 60% of all PLHIV were virally suppressed. Strengthening of testing programs and treatment support, along with prevention interventions, are needed to achieve HIV epidemic control.

The Human Immunodeficiency Virus Continuum of Care in European Union Countries in 2013: Data and Challenges.

BACKGROUND.: The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) has set a "90-90-90" target to curb the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic by 2020, but methods used to assess whether countries have reached this target are not standardized, hindering comparisons. METHODS.: Through a collaboration formed by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) with European HIV cohorts and surveillance agencies, we constructed a standardized, 4-stage continuum of HIV care for 11 European Union countries for 2013. Stages were defined as (1) number of people living with HIV in the country by end of 2013; (2) proportion of stage 1 ever diagnosed; (3) proportion of stage 2 that ever initiated ART; and (4) proportion of stage 3 who became virally suppressed (≤200 copies/mL). Case surveillance data were used primarily to derive stages 1 (using back-calculation models) and 2, and cohort data for stages 3 and 4. RESULTS.: In 2013, 674500 people in the 11 countries were estimated to be living with HIV, ranging from 5500 to 153400 in each country. Overall HIV prevalence was 0.22% (range, 0.09%-0.36%). Overall proportions of each previous stage were 84% diagnosed, 84% on ART, and 85% virally suppressed (60% of people living with HIV). Two countries achieved ≥90% for all stages, and more than half had reached ≥90% for at least 1 stage. CONCLUSIONS.: European Union countries are nearing the 90-90-90 target. Reducing the proportion undiagnosed remains the greatest barrier to achieving this target, suggesting that further efforts are needed to improve HIV testing rates. Standardizing methods to derive comparable continuums of care remains a challenge.

Clinical associations with venous thromboembolism in anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitides.

Objective: To assess potential associations for the development of venous thromboembolic events in patients with ANCA-associated vasculitides (AAV). Methods: Four hundred and seventeen patients enrolled to participate in randomized controlled trials conducted by the European Vasculitis Society were identified. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to validate previously proposed and identify novel risks associated with venous thromboembolism (VTE) in AAV. Results: VTE occurred in 41 of 417 (9.8%) patients. Uncorrected univariate analysis identified BVAS (odds ratio, OR = 1.05, 95% CI: 1.01, 1.10; P = 0.013), subsequent development of malignancy (OR = 2.6, 95% CI: 1.19, 5.71; P = 0.017), mucous membrane or eye involvement (OR = 2.13, 95% CI: 1.10, 4.11; P = 0.024) and baseline creatinine (OR = 1.08, 95% CI: 0.99, 1.18; P = 0.037) as being associated with the development of VTE. Multivariate analysis highlighted CRP (per 10 mg/l increase, OR = 1.05, 95% CI: 1.01, 1.09; P = 0.025), cutaneous involvement (OR = 4.83, 95% CI: 1.63, 14.38; P = 0.005) and gastrointestinal involvement (OR = 6.27, 95% CI: 1.34, 29.37; P = 0.02) among the BVAS items as well as baseline creatinine (per 100 µmol/l increase, OR = 1.17, 95% CI: 1.02, 1.35; P = 0.029) as being associated with VTEs. Conclusion: Our results highlight a role of CRP, baseline creatinine, and cutaneous and gastrointestinal involvement in the risk stratification as being associated with thromboembolic events. Moreover, there might be an association between VTEs and subsequent development of malignancy and disease activity in general.

Care interruptions and mortality among adults in Europe and North America.

OBJECTIVE: Interruptions in care of people with HIV (PWH) on antiretroviral therapy (ART) are associated with adverse outcomes, but most studies have relied on composite outcomes. We investigated whether mortality risk following care interruptions differed from mortality risk after first starting ART. DESIGN: Collaboration of 18 European and North American HIV observational cohort studies of adults with HIV starting ART between 2004 and 2019. METHODS: Care interruptions were defined as gaps in contact of ≥365 days, with a subsequent return to care (distinct from loss to follow-up), or ≥270 days and ≥545 days in sensitivity analyses. Follow-up time was allocated to no/preinterruption or postinterruption follow-up groups. We used Cox regression to compare hazards of mortality between care interruption groups, adjusting for time-updated demographic and clinical characteristics and biomarkers upon ART initiation or re-initiation of care. RESULTS: Of 89 197 PWH, 83.4% were male and median age at ART start was 39 years [interquartile range (IQR): 31-48)]. 8654 PWH (9.7%) had ≥1 care interruption; 10 913 episodes of follow-up following a care interruption were included. There were 6104 deaths in 536 334 person-years, a crude mortality rate of 11.4 [95% confidence interval (CI): 11.1-11.7] per 1000 person-years. The adjusted mortality hazard ratio (HR) for the postinterruption group was 1.72 (95% CI: 1.57-1.88) compared with the no/preinterruption group. Results were robust to sensitivity analyses assuming ≥270-day (HR 1.49, 95% CI: 1.40-1.60) and ≥545-day (HR 1.67, 95% CI: 1.48-1.88) interruptions. CONCLUSIONS: Mortality was higher among PWH reinitiating care following an interruption, compared with when PWH initially start ART, indicating the importance of uninterrupted care.

High seroprotection rates and geometric mean titre increases after repeated annual influenza vaccinations in a cohort of HIV-infected adults in Austria.

INTRODUCTION: Vaccination against seasonal influenza is recommended for all HIV-infected persons. Few data have been reported on the effect of repeated annual vaccination in this population. METHODS: We measured haemagglutination inhibition antibody responses and investigated seroprotection rates in 344 HIV-infected adults before and 12 weeks after influenza vaccination with a trivalent subunit vaccine. RESULTS: 68.3% of patients were male, the median age was 45 years. 83.7% had a viral load < 50 copies/mL. The median CD4 count was 604/µL. 304 patients (88.4%) had received influenza vaccinations in previous years. Seroprotection rates for A/H1N1 and B were over 90% in all age groups before vaccination and close to 100% after vaccination. For A/H3N2, seroprotection rates were lowest in individuals below 30 years both before and after vaccination (22.2% and 50.0%) and higher in older age groups (48.4% and 83.9% in people over 60 years). GMT fold increases were not significantly different across the age groups (3.0 to 4.2, p = 0.425). Previous influenza vaccinations were associated with higher seroprotection rates before and after vaccination (62.2% and 84.2% in patients with 8 or more previous vaccinations vs. 15.0% and 57.5% without previous vaccinations, respectively). Individuals with detectable viral load, elevated immune activation (urine neopterin ≥ 250 µmol/mol creatinine), and higher CD4 nadir (≥200 cells/µL) showed a trend towards inferior immune responses to vaccination, whereas gender and CD4 count did not have an effect. CONCLUSION: The lower seroprotection rates observed in younger individuals may be explained by the higher proportion of patients without HIV treatment and with fewer previous encounters with influenza strains. Good seroprotection rates can be achieved in elderly HIV-infected patients and after repeated annual vaccinations.

A Lower CD4 Count Predicts Most Causes of Death except Cardiovascular Deaths. The Austrian HIV Cohort Study.

(1) Objective: To investigate changes in mortality rates and predictors of all-cause mortality as well as specific causes of death over time among HIV-positive individuals in the combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) era. (2) Methods: We analyzed all-cause as well as cause-specific mortality among the Austrian HIV Cohort Study between 1997 and 2014. Observation time was divided into five periods: Period 1: 1997-2000; period 2: 2001-2004; period 3: 2005-2008; period 4: 2009-2011; and period 5: 2012-2014. Mortality rates are presented as deaths per 100 person-years (d/100py). Potential risk factors associated with all-cause mortality and specific causes of death were identified by using multivariable Cox proportional hazard models. Models were adjusted for time-updated CD4, age and cART, HIV transmission category, population size of residence area and country of birth. To assess potential nonlinear associations, we fitted all CD4 counts per patient using restricted cubic splines with truncation at 1000 cells/mm3. Vital status of patients was cross-checked with death registry data. (3) Results: Of 6848 patients (59,704 person-years of observation), 1192 died: 380 (31.9%) from AIDS-related diseases. All-cause mortality rates decreased continuously from 3.49 d/100py in period 1 to 1.40 d/100py in period 5. Death due to AIDS-related diseases, liver-related diseases and non-AIDS infections declined, whereas cardiovascular diseases as cause of death remained stable (0.27 d/100py in period 1, 0.10 d/100py in period 2, 0.16 d/100py in period 3, 0.09 d/100py in period 4 and 0.14 d/100py in period 5) and deaths due to non-AIDS-defining malignancies increased. Compared to latest CD4 counts of 500 cells/mm3, lower CD4 counts conferred a higher risk of deaths due to AIDS-related diseases, liver-related diseases, non-AIDS infections and non-AIDS-defining malignancies, whereas no significant association was observed for cardiovascular mortality. Results were similar in sensitivity analyses where observation time was divided into two periods: 1997-2004 and 2005-2014. (4) Conclusions: Since the introduction of cART, risk of death decreased and causes of death changed. We do not find evidence that HIV-positive individuals with a low CD4 count are more likely to die from cardiovascular diseases.

Effect of cyclosporine, tacrolimus and sirolimus on cellular senescence in renal epithelial cells.

INTRODUCTION: In transplantation medicine calcineurin inhibitors (CNI) still represent the backbone of immunosuppressive therapy. The nephrotoxic potential of the CNI Cyclosporine A (CsA) and Tacrolimus (FK506) is well recognized and CNI not only have been linked with toxicity, but also with cellular senescence which hinders parenchymal tissue regeneration and thus may prime kidneys for subsequent insults. To minimize pathological effects on kidney grafts, alternative immunosuppressive agents like mTOR inhibitors or the T-cell co-stimulation blocker Belatacept have been introduced. METHODS: We compared the effects of CsA, FK506 and Sirolimus on the process of cellular senescence in different human renal tubule cell types (HK2, RPTEC). Telomere length (by real time PCR), DNA synthesis (by BrdU incorporation), cell viability (by Resazurin conversion), gene expression (by RT-PCR), protein (by western blotting), Immuncytochemistry and H2O2 production (by Amplex Red® conversion) were evaluated. RESULTS: DNA synthesis was significantly reduced when cells were treated with cyclosporine but not with tacrolimus and sirolimus. Resazurin conversion was not altered by all three immunosuppressive agents. The gene expression as well as protein production of the cell cycle inhibitor p21 (CDKN1A) but not p16 (CDKN2A) was significantly induced by cyclosporine compared to the other two immunosuppressive agents when determined by western blotting an immuncytochemistry. Relative telomere length was reduced and hydrogen peroxide production increased after treatment with CsA but not with FK506 or sirolimus. CONCLUSION: In summary, renal tubule cells exposed to CsA show clear signs of cellular senescence where on the contrary the second calcineurin inhibitor FK506 and the mTOR inhibitor sirolimus are not involved in such mechanisms. Chronic renal allograft dysfunction could be in part triggered by cellular senescence induced by immunosuppressive medication and the choice of drug could therefore influence long term outcome. Tacrolimus and Sirolimus are equally effective in avoiding cellular senescence compared to cyclosporine at least in parts due to a lack of induction of reactive oxygen species.

A Single Quantifiable Viral Load Is Predictive of Virological Failure in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-Infected Patients on Combination Antiretroviral Therapy: The Austrian HIV Cohort Study.

Background. Viral loads (VLs) detectable at low levels are not uncommon in patients on combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). We investigated whether a single quantifiable VL predicted virological failure (VF). Methods. We analyzed patients receiving standard regimens with at least 1 VL measurement below the limit of quantification (BLQ) in their treatment history. The first VL measurement after 6 months of unmodified cART served as baseline VL for the subsequent analyses of the time to reach single VL levels of ≥200, ≥400, and ≥1000 copies/mL. Roche TaqMan 2.0 was used to quantify human immunodeficiency virus-1 ribonucleic acid. Factors associated with VF were determined by Cox proportional hazards models. Results. Of 1614 patients included in the study, 68, 44, and 34 experienced VF ≥200, ≥400, and ≥1000 copies/mL, respectively. In multivariable analyses, compared with patients who were BLQ, a detectable VL ≤ 50 and VL 51-199 copies/mL predicted VF ≥ 200 copies/mL (hazards ratio [HR] = 2.19, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.06-4.55 and HR = 4.21, 95% CI = 2.15-8.22, respectively). In those with VL 51-199 copies/mL, a trend for an increased risk of VF ≥400 and VF ≥1000 copies/mL could be found (HR = 2.13, 95% CI = 0.84-5.39 and HR = 2.52, 95% CI = 0.96-6.60, respectively). Conclusions. These findings support closer monitoring and adherence counseling for patients with a single measurement of quantifiable VL <200 copies/mL.

Factors Associated with Low-Level Viraemia and Virological Failure: Results from the Austrian HIV Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: In human immunodeficiency virus treatment adequate virological suppression is warranted, nevertheless for some patients it remains a challenge. We investigated factors associated with low-level viraemia (LLV) and virological failure (VF) under combined antiretroviral therapy (cART). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We analysed patients receiving standard regimens between 1st July 2012 and 1st July 2013 with at least one viral load (VL) measurement below the quantification limit (BLQ) in their treatment history. After a minimum of 6 months of unmodified cART, the next single VL measurement within 6 months was analysed. VF was defined as HIV RNA levels ≥ 200 copies/mL and all other quantifiable measurements were classified as LLV. Factors associated with LLV and VF compared to BLQ were identified by logistic regression models. RESULTS: Of 2276 participants, 1972 (86.6%) were BLQ, 222 (9.8%) showed LLV and 82 (3.6%) had VF. A higher risk for LLV and VF was shown in patients with cART interruptions and in patients with boosted PI therapy. The risk for LLV and VF was lower in patients from centres using the Abbott compared to the Roche assay to measure VL. A higher risk for LLV but not for VF was found in patients with a higher VL before cART [for >99.999 copies/mL: aOR (95% CI): 4.19 (2.07-8.49); for 10.000-99.999 copies/mL: aOR (95% CI): 2.52 (1.23-5.19)] and shorter cART duration [for <9 months: aOR (95% CI): 2.59 (1.38-4.86)]. A higher risk for VF but not for LLV was found in younger patients [for <30 years: aOR (95% CI): 2.76 (1.03-7.35); for 30-50 years: aOR (95% CI): 2.70 (1.26-5.79)], people originating from high prevalence countries [aOR (95% CI): 2.20 (1.09-4.42)] and in male injecting drug users [aOR (95% CI): 2.72 (1.38-5.34)]. CONCLUSIONS: For both VF and LLV, factors associated with adherence play a prominent role. Furthermore, performance characteristics of the diagnostic assay used for VL quantification should also be taken into consideration.

Difference in factors associated with low-level viraemia and virological failure: results from the Austrian HIV Cohort Study.

INTRODUCTION: For some patients, it remains a challenge to achieve complete virological suppression which is the goal of antiretroviral therapy (ART). Identifying factors associated with low-level viraemia (LLV) and virological failure (VF) under ART might help to optimize management of these patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We investigated patients from the Austrian HIV Cohort Study receiving unmodified ART for >6 months with two nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) with either a non-nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) or a boosted protease inhibitor (PI) or an integrase inhibitor (INSTI) between 1 July 2012 and 1 July 2013 with at least one viral load (VL) measurement below the limit of detection (BLD) or below level of quantification (BLQ) in their treatment history. VF was defined as HIV-RNA levels ≥200 copies/mL and all other quantifiable measurements were classified as LLV. Factors associated with LLV and VF compared to BLD and BLQ were identified by using logistic regression models. RESULTS: Of the 2,276 patients analyzed, 1,972 (86.6%) were BLD or BLQ, 222 (9.8%) showed LLV and 82 (3.6%) had VF. A higher risk for LLV and VF was found in patients with ART interruptions and in patients with boosted PI therapy. The risk for LLV and VF was lower in patients from a centre which uses Abbott RealTime HIV-1 assay compared to the other centres measuring VL by the Roche Cobas AmpliPrep/Cobas TaqMan 2.0. A higher risk for LLV but not for VF was found in patients with a higher VL before ART and shorter ART duration. A higher risk for VF but not for LLV was found in patients of younger age, originating from a high prevalence country, with a lower CD4 count and in male injecting drug users. CONCLUSIONS: This study of well-defined patients on stable ART over a period of more than six months gives insights into the different factors associated with LLV and VF. In patients with VF, factors associated with adherence play a prominent role, whereas in patients with LLV, the biology of viral replication comes additionally into effect. Despite its observational design, it has implications for patient management and forms the basis for future outcome studies.

Treatment modification in HIV-Infected individuals starting antiretroviral therapy between 2011 and 2014.

INTRODUCTION: While antiretroviral therapy (ART) has increased the survival of HIV patients and turned HIV infection into a chronic condition, treatment modifications and poor adherence might limit this therapeutic success. METHODS: Patients from the Austrian HIV Cohort Study, who started their first ART after Rilpivirine became available in February 2011, were analyzed for factors associated with treatment modification which could be either a change of drugs or a stop of the regimen. A drug was considered as stopped when the regimen was interrupted for more than eight days. Drugs of particular interest were Darunavir (DRV), Atazanavir (ATV), Raltegravir (RAL), Rilpivirine (RPV) and Efavirenz (EFV). RPV and EFV were analyzed only when taken as single tablet regimen. Other drugs were summarized as "other." Proportional hazards regression methods were used to identify predictors of discontinuation and Kaplan-Meier estimates were used to calculate probabilities of discontinuation. Patients who died were censored at the date of death. RESULTS: 965 patients started ART, 282 with DRV, 161 with ATV, 96 with RAL, 108 with RPV and 118 with EFV. Median time for taking initial ART is 11.6 months. 322 (33.4%) patients modified their initial ART. The overall probability of modification at one year was 28.7%, at two years 40.0% and at three years 49.8%. In a multivariable proportional hazards regression analysis, AIDS diagnosis at baseline and injecting drug use (IDU) of men compared with men who have sex with men (MSM) have a higher risk of switch/stop. Compared with DRV, RPV showed a much lower and ATV and particularly "other" a higher risk for discontinuation (Table 1). CONCLUSION: Rates of modification and interruption were still high in recent years, particularly in the first year of ART. The decreased rate of modification found in patients treated with Rilpivirine may be attributed to selection of patients according to guidelines.