NMR Investigation of Protein-Carbohydrate Interactions: The Recognition of Glycans by Galectins Engineered with Fluorotryptophan Residues.

Fluorine (19 F) incorporation into glycan-binding proteins (lectins) has been achieved and exploited to monitor the binding to carbohydrate ligands by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Galectins are a family of lectins that bind carbohydrates, generally with weak affinities, through a combination of intermolecular interactions including a key CH-π stacking involving a conserved tryptophan residue. Herein, Galectin-3 (Gal3) and Galectin-8 (Gal8) with one and two carbohydrate recognition domains (CRDs), respectively, were selected. Gal3 contains one Trp, whereas Gal8 contains three, one at each binding site and a third one not involved in sugar binding; these were substituted by the corresponding F-Trp analogues. The presence of fluorine did not significantly modify the affinity for glycan binding, which was in slow exchange on the 19 F NMR chemical-shift timescale, even for weak ligands, and allowed binding events taking place at two different binding sites within the same lectin to be individualized.

Synthetic Zwitterionic Streptococcus pneumoniae Type 1 Oligosaccharides Carrying Labile O-Acetyl Esters.

We herein report the first total synthesis of the Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 1 (Sp1) oligosaccharide, a unique zwitterionic capsular polysaccharide carrying labile O-acetyl esters. The target oligosaccharides, featuring rare α-2,4-diamino-2,4,6-trideoxy galactose (AAT) and α-galacturonic acids, were assembled up to the 9-mer level, in a highly stereoselective manner using trisaccharide building blocks. The lability of the O-acetyl esters imposed a careful deprotection scheme to prevent migration and hydrolysis. The migration was investigated in detail at various pD values using NMR spectroscopy, to show that migration and hydrolysis of the C-3-O-acetyl esters readily takes place under neutral conditions. Structural investigation showed the oligomers to adopt a right-handed helical structure with the acetyl esters exposed on the periphery of the helix in close proximity of the neighboring AAT residues, thereby imposing conformational restrictions on the AATα1-4GalA(3OAc) glycosidic linkages, supporting the helical shape of the polysaccharide, that has been proposed to be critical for its unique biological activity.

Microwave-assisted palladium catalysed C-H acylation with aldehydes: synthesis and diversification of 3-acylthiophenes.

The use of MW allows the efficient palladium(II)-catalysed C-3 acylation of thiophenes with aldehydes via C(sp2)-H activation for the synthesis of (cyclo)alkyl/aryl thienyl ketones (43 examples). Compared to standard thermal conditions, the use of MW reduces the reaction time (15 to 30 min vs. 1 to 3 hours), leading to improved yields of the ketones (up to 92%). The control of positional selectivity is achieved by 2-pyridinyl and 2-pyrimidyl ortho-directing groups at C-2 of the thiophene scaffold. To show the synthetic applicability, selected ketones were subjected to further transformations, including intramolecular reactions to directly embed the directing group in the core structure of the new molecule.

Cross-Linking Effects Dictate the Preference of Galectins to Bind LacNAc-Decorated HPMA Copolymers.

The interaction of multi-LacNAc (Galß1-4GlcNAc)-containing N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide (HPMA) copolymers with human galectin-1 (Gal-1) and the carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) of human galectin-3 (Gal-3) was analyzed using NMR methods in addition to cryo-electron-microscopy and dynamic light scattering (DLS) experiments. The interaction with individual LacNAc-containing components of the polymer was studied for comparison purposes. For Gal-3 CRD, the NMR data suggest a canonical interaction of the individual small-molecule bi- and trivalent ligands with the lectin binding site and better affinity for the trivalent arrangement due to statistical effects. For the glycopolymers, the interaction was stronger, although no evidence for forming a large supramolecule was obtained. In contrast, for Gal-1, the results indicate the formation of large cross-linked supramolecules in the presence of multivalent LacNAc entities for both the individual building blocks and the polymers. Interestingly, the bivalent and trivalent presentation of LacNAc in the polymer did not produce such an increase, indicating that the multivalency provided by the polymer is sufficient for triggering an efficient binding between the glycopolymer and Gal-1. This hypothesis was further demonstrated by electron microscopy and DLS methods.

Functional diversification of the chemical landscapes of yeast Sec14-like phosphatidylinositol transfer protein lipid-binding cavities.

Phosphatidylinositol-transfer proteins (PITPs) are key regulators of lipid signaling in eukaryotic cells. These proteins both potentiate the activities of phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns) 4-OH kinases and help channel production of specific pools of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PtdIns(4)P) dedicated to specific biological outcomes. In this manner, PITPs represent a major contributor to the mechanisms by which the biological outcomes of phosphoinositide are diversified. The two-ligand priming model proposes that the engine by which Sec14-like PITPs potentiate PtdIns kinase activities is a heterotypic lipid-exchange cycle where PtdIns is a common exchange substrate among the Sec14-like PITP family, but the second exchange ligand varies with the PITP. A major prediction of this model is that second-exchangeable ligand identity will vary from PITP to PITP. To address the heterogeneity in the second exchange ligand for Sec14-like PITPs, we used structural, computational, and biochemical approaches to probe the diversities of the lipid-binding cavity microenvironments of the yeast Sec14-like PITPs. The collective data report that yeast Sec14-like PITP lipid-binding pockets indeed define diverse chemical microenvironments that translate into differential ligand-binding specificities across this protein family.

Vesicular PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 and Rab7 are key effectors of sea urchin zygote nuclear membrane fusion.

Regulation of nuclear envelope dynamics is an important example of the universal phenomena of membrane fusion. The signalling molecules involved in nuclear membrane fusion might also be conserved during the formation of both pronuclear and zygote nuclear envelopes in the fertilised egg. Here, we determine that class-I phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) are needed for in vitro nuclear envelope formation. We show that, in vivo, PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 is transiently located in vesicles around the male pronucleus at the time of nuclear envelope formation, and around male and female pronuclei before membrane fusion. We illustrate that class-I PI3K activity is also necessary for fusion of the female and male pronuclear membranes. We demonstrate, using coincidence amplified Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) monitored using fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM), a protein-lipid interaction of Rab7 GTPase and PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 that occurs during pronuclear membrane fusion to create the zygote nuclear envelope. We present a working model, which includes several molecular steps in the pathways controlling fusion of nuclear envelope membranes.

Endomembrane PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 activates the PI3K-Akt pathway.

PKB/Akt activation is a common step in tumour growth, proliferation and survival. Akt activation is understood to occur at the plasma membrane of cells in response to growth factor stimulation and local production of the phosphoinositide lipid phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate [PtdIns(3,4,5)P3] following phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) activation. The metabolism and turnover of phosphoinositides is complex--they act as signalling molecules as well as structural components of biological membranes. The localisation and significance of internal pools of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 has long been speculated upon. By using transfected and recombinant protein probes for PtdIns(3,4,5)P3, we show that PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 is enriched in the nuclear envelope and early endosomes. By exploiting an inducible dimerisation device to recruit Akt to these compartments, we demonstrate that Akt can be locally activated in a PtdIns(3,4,5)P3-dependent manner and has the potential to phosphorylate compartmentally localised downstream substrates. This could be an important mechanism to regulate Akt isoform substrate specificity or influence the timing and duration of PI3K pathway signalling. Defects in phosphoinositide metabolism and localisation are known to contribute to cancer, suggesting that interactions at subcellular compartments might be worthwhile targets for therapeutic intervention.

Histones cause aggregation and fusion of lipid vesicles containing phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate.

In a previous article, we demonstrated that histones (H1 or histone octamers) interact with negatively charged bilayers and induce extensive aggregation of vesicles containing phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PIP) and, to a lesser extent, vesicles containing phosphatidylinositol (PI). Here, we found that vesicles containing PIP, but not those containing PI, can undergo fusion induced by histones. Fusion was demonstrated through the observation of intervesicular mixing of total lipids and inner monolayer lipids, and by ultrastructural and confocal microscopy studies. Moreover, in both PI- and PIP-containing vesicles, histones caused permeabilization and release of vesicular aqueous contents, but the leakage mechanism was different (all-or-none for PI and graded release for PIP vesicles). These results indicate that histones could play a role in the remodeling of the nuclear envelope that takes place during the mitotic cycle.

Histones and DNA compete for binding polyphosphoinositides in bilayers.

Recent discoveries on the presence and location of phosphoinositides in the eukaryotic cell nucleoplasm and nuclear membrane prompted us to study the putative interaction of chromatin components with these lipids in model membranes (liposomes). Turbidimetric studies revealed that a variety of histones and histone combinations (H1, H2AH2B, H3H4, octamers) caused a dose-dependent aggregation of phosphatidylcholine vesicles (large unilamellar vesicle or small unilamellar vesicle) containing negatively charged phospholipids. 5 mol % phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PIP) was enough to cause extensive aggregation under our conditions, whereas with phosphatidylinositol (PI) at least 20 mol % was necessary to obtain a similar effect. Histone binding to giant unilamellar vesicle and vesicle aggregation was visualized by confocal microscopy. Histone did not cause vesicle aggregation in the presence of DNA, and the latter was able to disassemble the histone-vesicle aggregates. At DNA/H1 weight ratios 0.1-0.5 DNA- and PIP-bound H1 appear to coexist. Isothermal calorimetry studies revealed that the PIP-H1 association constant was one order of magnitude higher than that of PI-H1, and the corresponding lipid/histone stoichiometries were ~0.5 and ~1, respectively. The results suggest that, in the nucleoplasm, a complex interplay of histones, DNA, and phosphoinositides may be taking place, particularly at the nucleoplasmic reticula that reach deep within the nucleoplasm, or during somatic and nonsomatic nuclear envelope assembly. The data described here provide a minimal model for analyzing and understanding the mechanism of these interactions.

Molecular Recognition of Glycan-Bearing Glycomacromolecules Presented at Membrane Surfaces by Lectins: An NMR View.

Lectin-glycan interactions are at the heart of a multitude of biological events. Glycans are usually presented in a multivalent manner on the cell surface as part of the so-called glycocalyx, where they interact with other entities. This multivalent presentation allows us to overcome the typical low affinities found for individual glycan-lectin interactions. Indeed, the presentation of glycans may drastically impact their binding by lectins, highly affecting the corresponding binding affinity and even selectivity. In this context, we herein present the study of the interaction of a variety of homo- and heteromultivalent lactose-functionalized glycomacromolecules and their lipid conjugates with two human galectins. We have employed as ligands the glycomacromolecules, as well as liposomes decorated with those structures, to evaluate their interactions in a cell-mimicking environment. Key details of the interaction have been unravelled by NMR experiments, both from the ligand and receptor perspectives, complemented by cryo-electron microscopy methods and molecular dynamics simulations.

Oligosaccharide Presentation Modulates the Molecular Recognition of Glycolipids by Galectins on Membrane Surfaces.

Galectins are a family of glycan binding proteins that stand out for the wide range of biological phenomena in which they are involved. Most galectin functions are associated with their glycan binding capacities, which are generally well characterized at the oligosaccharide level, but not at the glycoprotein or glycolipid level. Glycolipids form the part of cell membranes where they can act as galectin cellular receptors. In this scenario, glycan presentation as well as the membrane chemical and structural features are expected to have a strong impact in these molecular association processes. Herein, liposomes were used as membrane mimicking scaffolds for the presentation of glycosphingolipids (GSLs) and to investigate their interaction with Galectin-3 and the N-domain of Galectin-8 (Gal8N). The binding towards GM3 and GM1 and their non-silaylated GSLs was compared to the binding to the free glycans, devoid of lipid. The analysis was carried out using a combination of NMR methods, membrane perturbation studies, and molecular modeling. Our results showed a different tendency of the two galectins in their binding capacities towards the glycans, depending on whether they were free oligosaccharides or as part of GSL inserted into a lipid bilayer, highlighting the significance of GSL glycan presentation on membranes in lectin binding.

Pd(II)-Catalyzed Fujiwara-Moritani Reactions for the Synthesis and Functionalization of Substituted Coumarins.

Highly substituted coumarins, privileged and versatile scaffolds for bioactive natural products and fluorescence imaging, are obtained via a Pd(II)-catalyzed direct C-H alkenylation reaction (Fujiwara-Moritani reaction), which has emerged as a powerful tool for the construction and functionalization of heterocyclic compounds because of its chemical versatility and its environmental advantages. Thus, a selective 6-endo cyclization led to 4-substituted coumarins in moderate yields. Selected examples have been further functionalized in C3 through a second intermolecular C-H alkenylation reaction to give coumarin-acrylate hybrids, whose fluorescence spectra have been measured.

Aß31-35 Decreases Neprilysin-Mediated Alzheimer's Amyloid-ß Peptide Degradation.

Alzheimer's disease is associated with the deposition of extracellular senile plaques, made primarily of amyloid-ß (Aß), particularly peptides Aß1-42 and Aß1-40. Neprilysin, or neutral endopeptidase (NEP), catalyzes proteolysis of the amyloid peptides (Aß) and is recognized as one of the major regulators of the levels of these peptides in the brain, preventing Aß accumulation and plaque formation. Here, we used a combination of techniques to elucidate the mechanism of Aß binding and cleavage by NEP. Our findings indicate that the Aß31-X cleavage products remain bound to the neprilysin active site, reducing proteolytic activity. Interestingly, it was already shown that this Aß31-35 sequence is also critical for recognition of Aß peptides by other targets, such as the serpin-enzyme complex receptor in neuronal cells.

Lipid transfer proteins and instructive regulation of lipid kinase activities: Implications for inositol lipid signaling and disease.

Cellular membranes are critical platforms for intracellular signaling that involve complex interfaces between lipids and proteins, and a web of interactions between a multitude of lipid metabolic pathways. Membrane lipids impart structural and functional information in this regulatory circuit that encompass biophysical parameters such as membrane thickness and fluidity, as well as chaperoning the interactions of protein binding partners. Phosphatidylinositol and its phosphorylated derivatives, the phosphoinositides, play key roles in intracellular membrane signaling, and these involvements are translated into an impressively diverse set of biological outcomes. The phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins (PITPs) are key regulators of phosphoinositide signaling. Found in a diverse array of organisms from plants, yeast and apicomplexan parasites to mammals, PITPs were initially proposed to be simple transporters of lipids between intracellular membranes. It now appears increasingly unlikely that the soluble versions of these proteins perform such functions within the cell. Rather, these serve to facilitate the activity of intrinsically biologically insufficient inositol lipid kinases and, in so doing, promote diversification of the biological outcomes of phosphoinositide signaling. The central engine for execution of such functions is the lipid exchange cycle that is a fundamental property of PITPs. How PITPs execute lipid exchange remains very poorly understood. Molecular dynamics simulation approaches are now providing the first atomistic insights into how PITPs, and potentially other lipid-exchange/transfer proteins, operate.

An equal opportunity collaboration between lipid metabolism and proteins in the control of membrane trafficking in the trans-Golgi and endosomal systems.

Recent years have witnessed the evolution of the cell biology of lipids into an extremely active area of investigation. Deciphering the involvement of lipid metabolism and lipid signaling in membrane trafficking pathways defines a major nexus of contemporary experimental activity on this front. Significant effort in that direction is invested in understanding the trans-Golgi network/endosomal system where unambiguous connections between membrane trafficking and inositol lipid and phosphatidylcholine metabolism were first discovered. However, powered by new advances in contemporary cell biology, the march of science is rapidly expanding that window of inquiry to include ever more diverse arms of the lipid metabolome, and to include other compartments of the secretory pathway as well.

Fast and slow biomembrane solubilizing detergents: Insights into their mechanism of action.

Detergents are water-soluble amphiphiles. Above a critical concentration they self-organize in micelles and in the presence of phospholipids mixed micelles are formed. Much information is available on the structure of these self-assemblies and on the thermodynamics of their formation. The aim of this study was to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms of solubilization. Solubilization of lipid vesicles made of egg phosphatidylcholine (PC) by twenty one commercially available, structurally heterogeneous detergents, has been assessed by a decrease in turbidity of the vesicle suspension. Both steady-state and time-resolved measurements have been performed. The results show that the detergents under study fall into one of two categories, namely fast-solubilizing and slow-solubilizing detergents. This categorization is independent of detergent concentration, i.e. a "slow" cannot be converted into a "fast" surfactant by increasing its bulk concentration. 31P-NMR spectra indicate that slow-acting detergents cause either a gradual, monotonic micellization of bilayers (sodium dodecyl sulphate), or formation of more complex, perhaps non-lamellar, non-micellar intermediates (dodecylmaltoside). In contrast, fast detergents (e.g. Triton X-100) cause lysis and reassembly of vesicles before bulk solubilization takes place. These results support the idea that membrane solubilization by detergents is rapid only when surfactant transbilayer (flipping) motion is easy.

Polyamine-RNA-membrane interactions: From the past to the future in biology.

Biogenic polyamines (PAs), spermine, spermidine and putrescine are widely spread amino acid derivatives, present in living cells throughout the whole evolutionary scale. Their amino groups confer them a marked basic character at the cellular pH. We have tested the interaction of PAs with negatively-charged phospholipids in the absence and presence of nucleic acids (tRNA was mainly used for practical reasons). PAs induced aggregation of lipid vesicles containing acidic phospholipids. Aggregation was detected using both spectroscopic and fluorescence microscopy methods (the latter with giant unilamellar vesicles). PA-liposome complexes were partially disaggregated when nucleic acids were added to the mixture, indicating a competition between lipids and nucleic acids for PAs in a multiple equilibrium phenomenon. Equivalent observations could be made when vesicles composed of oleic acid and 1-decanol (1:1mol ratio) were used instead of phospholipid liposomes. The data could evoke putative primitive processes of proto-biotic evolution. At the other end of the time scale, this system may be at the basis of an interesting tool in the development of nanoscale drug delivery.

Lipidic nanovesicles stabilize suspensions of metal oxide nanoparticles.

We have studied the effect of adding lipid nanovesicles (liposomes) on the aggregation of commercial titanium oxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), or cerium oxide (CeO2) nanoparticles (NPs) suspensions in Hepes buffer. Liposomes were prepared with pure phospholipids or mixtures of phospholipids and/or cholesterol. Changes in turbidity were recorded as a function of time, either of metal nanoparticles alone, or for a mixture of nanoparticles and lipidic nanovesicles. Lipid nanovesicles markedly decrease the NPs tendency to sediment irrespective of size or lipid compositions, thus keeping the metal oxide NPs in suspension. Cryo-electron microscopy, fluorescence anisotropy of TMA-DPH and general polarization of laurdan failed to reveal any major effect of the NPs on the lipid bilayer structure or phase state of the lipids. The above data may help in developing studies of the interaction of inhaled particles with lung surfactant lipids and alveolar macrophages.

Sec14-nodulin proteins and the patterning of phosphoinositide landmarks for developmental control of membrane morphogenesis.

Polarized membrane morphogenesis is a fundamental activity of eukaryotic cells. This process is essential for the biology of cells and tissues, and its execution demands exquisite temporal coordination of functionally diverse membrane signaling reactions with high spatial resolution. Moreover, mechanisms must exist to establish and preserve such organization in the face of randomizing forces that would diffuse it. Here we identify the conserved AtSfh1 Sec14-nodulin protein as a novel effector of phosphoinositide signaling in the extreme polarized membrane growth program exhibited by growing Arabidopsis root hairs. The data are consistent with Sec14-nodulin proteins controlling the lateral organization of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) landmarks for polarized membrane morphogenesis in plants. This patterning activity requires both the PtdIns(4,5)P2 binding and homo-oligomerization activities of the AtSfh1 nodulin domain and is an essential aspect of the polarity signaling program in root hairs. Finally, the data suggest a general principle for how the phosphoinositide signaling landscape is physically bit mapped so that eukaryotic cells are able to convert a membrane surface into a high-definition lipid-signaling screen.