National Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Potential from Adopting Anaerobic Digestion on Large-Scale Dairy Farms in the United States.

Waste-to-energy systems can provide a functional demonstration of the economic and environmental benefits of circularity, innovation, and reimagining existing systems. This study offers a robust quantification of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction potential of the adoption of anaerobic digestion (AD) technology on applicable large-scale dairy farms in the contiguous United States. GHG reduction estimates were developed through a robust life cycle modeling framework paired with sensitivity and uncertainty analyses. Twenty dairy configurations were modeled to capture important differences in housing and manure management practices, applicable AD technologies, regional climates, storage cleanout schedules, and methods of land application. Monte Carlo results for the 90% confidence interval illustrate the potential for AD adoption to reduce GHG emissions from the large-scale dairy industry by 2.45-3.52 MMT of CO2-eq per year considering biogas use only in renewable natural gas programs and as much as 4.53-6.46 MMT of CO2-eq per year with combined heat and power as an additional biogas use case. At the farm level, AD technology may reduce GHG emissions from manure management systems by 58.1-79.8% depending on the region. Discussion focuses on regional differences in GHG emissions from manure management strategies and the challenges and opportunities surrounding AD adoption.

Detection of Purple Sulfur Bacteria in Purple and Non-purple Dairy Wastewaters.

The presence of purple bacteria in manure storage lagoons is often associated with reduced odors. In this study, our objectives were to determine the occurrence of purple sulfur bacteria (PSB) in seven dairy wastewater lagoons and to identify possible linkages between wastewater properties and purple blooms. Community DNA was extracted from composited wastewater samples, and a conservative 16S rRNA gene sequence within and genes found in both purple sulfur and nonsulfur bacteria was amplified. Analysis of the genes indicated that all of the lagoons contained sequences that were 92 to 97% similar with . Sequences from a few lagoons were also found to be similar with other PSB, such as sp. (97%), (93-100%), and (95-98%). sequences amplified from enrichment and pure cultures were most similar to (93-96%). Carotenoid pigment concentrations, which were used as an indirect measure of purple bacteria levels in the wastewaters, were found to be positively correlated with salinity, nitrogen, total and volatile solids, and chemical oxygen demand; however, salinity could be the dominant factor influencing purple blooms. Due to the detection of PSB sequences in all lagoons, our findings suggest that the non-purple lagoons may have been purple in the past or may have the potential to become purple in the future.

Phosphorus losses from an irrigated watershed in the northwestern United States: case study of the upper snake rock watershed.

Watersheds using surface water for irrigation often return a portion of the water to a water body. This irrigation return flow often includes sediment and nutrients that reduce the quality of the receiving water body. Research in the 82,000-ha Upper Snake Rock (USR) watershed from 2005 to 2008 showed that, on average, water diverted from the Snake River annually supplied 547 kg ha of total suspended solids (TSS), 1.1 kg ha of total P (TP), and 0.50 kg ha of dissolved P (DP) to the irrigation tract. Irrigation return flow from the USR watershed contributed 414 kg ha of TSS, 0.71 kg ha of TP, and 0.32 kg ha of DP back to the Snake River. Significantly more TP flowed into the watershed than returned to the Snake River, whereas there was no significant difference between inflow and return flow loads for TSS and DP. Average TSS and TP concentrations in return flow were 71 and 0.12 mg L, respectively, which exceeded the TMDL limits of 52 mg L TSS and 0.075 mg L TP set for this section of the Snake River. Monitoring inflow and outflow for five water quality ponds constructed to reduce sediment and P losses from the watershed showed that TSS concentrations were reduced 36 to 75%, but DP concentrations were reduced only 7 to 16%. This research showed that continued implementation of conservation practices should result in irrigation return flow from the USR watershed meeting the total maximum daily load limits for the Snake River.

Livestock GRACEnet: A Workgroup Dedicated to Evaluating and Mitigating Emissions from Livestock Production.

Ammonia, greenhouse gases, and particulate emissions from livestock operations can potentially affect air quality at local, regional, and even global scales. These pollutants, many of which are generated through various anthropogenic activities, are being increasingly scrutinized by regulatory authorities. Regulation of emissions from livestock production systems will ultimately increase on farm costs, which will then be passed onto consumers. Therefore, it is essential that scientifically based emission factors are developed for on-farm emissions of air quality constituents to improve inventories and assign appropriate reduction targets. To generate a larger database of on-farm emissions, the USDA-ARS created the workgroup Livestock GRACEnet (Greenhouse gas Reduction through Agricultural Carbon Enhancement Network). This introduction for the special section of papers highlights some of the research presently being conducted by members of Livestock GRACEnet with the intent of drawing attention to critical information gaps, such as (i) improving emissions measurements; (ii) developing emissions factors; (iii) developing and validating tools for estimating emissions; and (iv) mitigating emissions. We also provide a synthesis of the literature with respect to key research areas related to livestock emissions, including feeding strategies, animal housing, manure management, and manure land application, and discuss future research priorities and directions.

Long-term dairy manure amendment promotes legacy phosphorus buildup and mobility in calcareous soils.

Continuous application of dairy manure to soils can lead to excessive phosphorus (P) accumulation (legacy P), which requires understanding for managing nutrient availability and leaching. This study was conducted in Kimberly, ID, where dairy manure or conventional fertilizer was applied to calcareous soil plots under continuous crop rotations for 8 years (2013-2020), followed by 2 years with no amendment. To understand legacy P behavior in the soils, total P, organic/inorganic P, and plant-available Olsen bicarbonate P and Truog extraction measurements were made from surface and subsurface samples. Additionally, P in soluble and less soluble calcium phosphate (Ca-P) minerals was estimated using selective extractions, and P desorption was measured in a flow-through reactor. Manure amendments resulted in increased total soil P and plant-available P, particularly in the initial 5 years. In the 0- to 30-cm depth, 54%-65% of the soil P added from manure amendments was readily soluble by the Truog P test. Phosphorus released from the 2022 manure-amended soil in the desorption experiments was about five times greater than the fertilizer-amended soil, suggesting high leaching potential. After 8 years of manure amendment, subsurface Olsen-P levels exceeded the 40 mg kg-1 management threshold, suggesting P adsorption potential of the surface had become saturated, allowing for P leaching. In the manure-amended surface soils, calcium phosphate minerals increased compared to the controls. Even after 2 years without manure amendment, soluble Ca-P mineral phases persisted in the soils, which can be a long-term source of P leaching.

The characterization of microorganisms in dairy wastewater storage ponds.

Dairy wastewaters from storage ponds are commonly land applied to irrigate forage crops. Given that diverse microbial populations are associated with cattle feces, the objective of this study was to use a culture-independent approach to characterize bacteria and archaea in dairy wastewaters. Using domain-specific primers, a region of the 16S rRNA gene was amplified from pooled DNA extracts from 30 dairy wastewaters and subsequently used to create a clone library. A total of 152 bacterial clones were examined and sequence matches were affiliated with the following groups: Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Synergistetes. Firmicutes was identified as the largest phylum, representing up to 69% of the clone sequences. Of 167 clones representing Archaea, seven genera were found to be closely related (91-100% sequence similarity) to isolates obtained from sediments and feces. Most of the putative sequence matches (98%) represented members from the class Methanomicrobia. With respect to the archaeal clones, only one of the putative sequence matches was affiliated with a methanogenic bacterium known to inhabit the rumen.

Greenhouse gas and ammonia emissions from an open-freestall dairy in southern idaho.

Concentrated dairy operations emit trace gases such as ammonia (NH), methane (CH), and nitrous oxide (NO) to the atmosphere. The implementation of air quality regulations in livestock-producing states increases the need for accurate on-farm determination of emission rates. Our objective was to determine the emission rates of NH, CH, and NO from the open-freestall and wastewater pond source areas on a commercial dairy in southern Idaho using a flush system with anaerobic digestion. Gas concentrations and wind statistics were measured and used with an inverse dispersion model to calculate emission rates. Average emissions per cow per day from the open-freestall source area were 0.08 kg NH, 0.41 kg CH, and 0.02 kg NO. Average emissions from the wastewater ponds (g m d) were 6.8 NH, 22 CH, and 0.2 NO. The combined emissions on a per cow per day basis from the open-freestall and wastewater pond areas averaged 0.20 kg NH and 0.75 kg CH. Combined NO emissions were not calculated due to limited available data. The wastewater ponds were the greatest source of total farm NH emissions (67%) in spring and summer. The emissions of CH were approximately equal from the two source areas in spring and summer. During the late fall and winter months, the open-freestall area constituted the greatest source area of NH and CH emissions. Data from this study can be used to develop trace gas emissions factors from open-freestall dairies in southern Idaho and other open-freestall production systems in similar climatic regions.

Uncertainty in phosphorus fluxes and budgets across the US long-term agroecosystem research network.

Phosphorus (P) budgets can be useful tools for understanding nutrient cycling and quantifying the effectiveness of nutrient management planning and policies; however, uncertainties in agricultural nutrient budgets are not often quantitatively assessed. The objective of this study was to evaluate uncertainty in P fluxes (fertilizer/manure application, atmospheric deposition, irrigation, crop removal, surface runoff, and leachate) and the propagation of these uncertainties to annual P budgets. Data from 56 cropping systems in the P-FLUX database, which spans diverse rotations and landscapes across the United States and Canada, were evaluated. Results showed that across cropping systems, average annual P budget was 22.4 kg P ha-1 (range = -32.7 to 340.6 kg P ha-1 ), with an average uncertainty of 13.1 kg P ha-1 (range = 1.0-87.1 kg P ha-1 ). Fertilizer/manure application and crop removal were the largest P fluxes across cropping systems and, as a result, accounted for the largest fraction of uncertainty in annual budgets (61% and 37%, respectively). Remaining fluxes individually accounted for <2% of the budget uncertainty. Uncertainties were large enough that determining whether P was increasing, decreasing, or not changing was inconclusive in 39% of the budgets evaluated. Findings indicate that more careful and/or direct measurements of inputs, outputs, and stocks are needed. Recommendations for minimizing uncertainty in P budgets based on the results of the study were developed. Quantifying, communicating, and constraining uncertainty in budgets among production systems and multiple geographies is critical for engaging stakeholders, developing local and national strategies for P reduction, and informing policy.

Quantification of bacterial indicators and zoonotic pathogens in dairy wastewater ponds.

Zoonotic pathogens in land-applied dairy wastewaters are a potential health risk. The occurrence and abundance of 10 pathogens and 3 fecal indicators were determined by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) in samples from 30 dairy wastewaters from southern Idaho. Samples tested positive for Campylobacter jejuni, stx(1)- and eaeA-positive Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, and Salmonella enterica, with mean recoveries of genomic DNA corresponding to 10(2) to 10(4) cells ml(-1) wastewater. The most predominant organisms were C. jejuni and M. avium, being detected in samples from up to 21 and 29 of 30 wastewater ponds, respectively. The qPCR detection limits for the putative pathogens in the wastewaters ranged from 16 cells ml(-1) for M. avium to 1,689 oocysts ml(-1) for Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp., Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, and pathogenic Leptospira spp. were not detected by qPCR.

Analysis of total metals in waste molding and core sands from ferrous and non-ferrous foundries.

Waste molding and core sands from the foundry industry are successfully being used around the world in geotechnical and soil-related applications. Although waste foundry sands (WFSs) are generally not hazardous in nature, relevant data is currently not available in Argentina. This study aimed to quantify metals in waste molding and core sands from foundries using a variety of metal-binder combinations. Metal concentrations in WFSs were compared to those in virgin silica sands (VSSs), surface soils and soil guidance levels. A total analysis for Ag, Al, Ba, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Te, Tl, V, and Zn was conducted on 96 WFSs and 14 VSSs collected from 17 small and medium-sized foundries. The majority of WFSs analyzed, regardless of metal cast and binder type, contained metal concentrations similar to those found in VSSs and native soils. In several cases where alkyd urethane binder was used, Co and Pb concentrations were elevated in the waste sands. Elevated Cr, Mo, Ni, and Tl concentrations associated with VSSs should not be an issue since these metals are bound within the silica sand matrix. Because of the naturally low metal concentrations found in most WFSs examined in this study, they should not be considered hazardous waste, thus making them available for encapsulated and unencapsulated beneficial use applications.

Challenges and opportunities for manureshed management across U.S. dairy systems: Case studies from four regions.

The manureshed represents cropland needed to safely assimilate manure nutrients from an animal feeding operation. Dairy manuresheds can be contained on-farm but may need to involve additional farms that can assimilate excess nutrients. We present case studies reviewing challenges and opportunities to manureshed management in four major dairy-producing states using available information on local manuresheds. Additionally, geographic information system software was used with data from regulated Minnesota dairies to assess cropland assimilative capacities and transport needs surrounding large dairies. Manureshed requirements vary across regions, but increased import of feed and soil phosphorus accumulation constrain on-farm manure utilization across the United States. In Minnesota, a growing proportion of Jersey cattle and differences in continuous corn (Zea mays L.) vs. corn-alfafa (Medicago sativa L.) rotations contribute to the amount of land needed to absorb dairy manure nutrients. Farm-gate budgets reveal that N-based manuresheds can be contained within Idaho dairies, but P-based manuresheds extend beyond the farm. In New Mexico, relocation of surplus manure nutrients off the farm is common via informal networks, but incentives to strengthen these networks could ensure sustainable manureshed management. Evaluation of manureshed requirements in Pennsylvania is often complicated by the need for additional nutrient management planning and greater understanding of nutrient balances on the preponderance of small dairies. Nutrient imbalances with highly concentrated dairy production often lead to the need for manure transport off-farm. However, advances in herd and cropland management offer opportunities to improve on-farm nutrient efficiencies, and emerging networks and technologies promise to facilitate manure export when needed.

Ambient endotoxin concentrations and assessment of offsite transport at open-lot and open-freestall dairies.

Endotoxins are derived from gram-negative bacteria and are a potent inducer of inflammatory reactions in the respiratory tract when inhaled. To assess daily fluctuations of airborne endotoxin and their potential for transport from dairies, endotoxin concentrations were monitored over an 8-h period at upwind (background) and downwind (5 m from edge of dairy) locations on three separate days at two dairies. The dairies consisted of an open-lot or an open-freestall production system, both of which were stocked with 10,000 milking cows. Upwind concentrations were stable throughout the sampling period, averaging between 1.2 and 36.8 endotoxin units (EU) m(-3), whereas downwind concentration averages ranged from 179 to 989 EU(-3). Downwind endotoxin concentrations increased with wind speed, animal activity, and lot management practices, resulting in concentrations up to 136-fold hi gher than upwind concentrations. An area-source model was used to predict downwind ground-level endotoxin concentrations at distances up to 2000 m from the production facilities. Predicted concentrations decreased with distance and reached background levels within 500 to 2000 m, depending on the source emision rate and meteorological conditions.

Emissions of ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide from dairy cattle housing and manure management systems.

Concentrated animal feeding operations emit trace gases such as ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), and nitrous oxide (N2O). The implementation of air quality regulations in livestock-producing states increases the need for accurate on-farm determination of emission rates. The objective of this study was to determine the emission rates of NH3, CH4, CO2, and N2O from three source areas (open lots, wastewater pond, compost) on a commercial dairy located in southern Idaho. Gas concentrations and wind statistics were measured each month and used with an inverse dispersion model to calculate emission rates. Average emissions per cow per day from the open lots were 0.13 kg NH3, 0.49 kg CH4, 28.1 kg CO2, and 0.01 kg N2O. Average emissions from the wastewater pond (g m(-2) d(-1)) were 2.0 g NH3, 103 g CH4, 637 g CO2, and 0.49 g N2O. Average emissions from the compost facility (g m(-2) d(-1)) were 1.6 g NH3, 13.5 g CH4, 516 g CO2, and 0.90 g N2O. The combined emissions of NH3, CH4, CO2, and N2O from the lots, wastewater pond and compost averaged 0.15, 1.4, 30.0, and 0.02 kg cow(-1) d(-1), respectively. The open lot areas generated the greatest emissions of NH3, CO2, and N2O, contributing 78, 80, and 57%, respectively, to total farm emissions. Methane emissions were greatest from the lots in the spring (74% of total), after which the wastewater pond became the largest source of emissions (55% of total) for the remainder of the year. Data from this study can be used to develop trace gas emissions factors from open-lot dairies in southern Idaho and potentially other open-lot production systems in similar climatic regions.

Simulating soil nitrogen fate in irrigated crop production with manure applications.

Dairy manure is commonly applied to irrigated agricultural crops in the Magic Valley Region of southern Idaho, which has reported to impact the quality of surface and ground water. In this study, we used the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM2) to provide information about the long-term implications of manure applications. RZWQM2 was first calibrated and validated using 4 years of data from a long-term study with annual and biennial manure application rates of 18 Mg ha-1, 36 Mg ha-1, and 52 Mg ha-1, along with a control and conventional fertilizer treatment for crop yield, soil water and soil N. The 4-yr crop rotation was spring wheat (2013), potato (2014), spring barley (2015), and sugar beets (2016). RZWQM2 simulated soil water content, crop yield, total soil nitrogen, and soil nitrogen mineralization effectively as PBIAS and RRMSE for soil water content and crop yields were within the acceptable range (±25% for PBIAS and <1.0 for RRMSE). Nitrate in the soil profile was overestimated, however in the acceptable range for the validation treatments. The calibrated model was then run for 16 years by repeating the management practices of the 4-year scenarios (4 crop rotations) for all treatments and 24 years for the 52 T Annual treatment (6 crop rotations). The 16-year simulation results showed that nitrogen seepage from annual manure treatments (for example, 18 T Annual vs 18 T Biennial) was 2.0 to 2.3 times higher than the nitrogen seepage from the biennial manure treatments. Increasing manure applications from 18 T Annual to 52 T Annual increased N seepage an average of 3.2 times for the 16-year rotation. Nitrogen seepage increased dramatically in rotations 3 and 4 compared to rotations 1 and 2 in the sixteen-year simulation. The 24-year simulation results showed after manure had been applied annually for 16 years and then applications terminated, the amount of N seepage returned initial levels in 8 years. In conclusion, to maintain clean ground water, manure applications would be best applied biennially, and high applications should be discouraged.

Ammonia and nitrous oxide emission factors for excreta deposited by livestock and land-applied manure.

Manure application to land and deposition of urine and dung by grazing animals are major sources of ammonia (NH3 ) and nitrous oxide (N2 O) emissions. Using data on NH3 and N2 O emissions following land-applied manures and excreta deposited during grazing, emission factors (EFs) disaggregated by climate zone were developed, and the effects of mitigation strategies were evaluated. The NH3 data represent emissions from cattle and swine manures in temperate wet climates, and the N2 O data include cattle, sheep, and swine manure emissions in temperate wet/dry and tropical wet/dry climates. The NH3 EFs for broadcast cattle solid manure and slurry were 0.03 and 0.24 kg NH3 -N kg-1 total N (TN), respectively, whereas the NH3 EF of broadcast swine slurry was 0.29. Emissions from both cattle and swine slurry were reduced between 46 and 62% with low-emissions application methods. Land application of cattle and swine manure in wet climates had EFs of 0.005 and 0.011 kg N2 O-N kg-1 TN, respectively, whereas in dry climates the EF for cattle manure was 0.0031. The N2 O EFs for cattle urine and dung in wet climates were 0.0095 and 0.002 kg N2 O-N kg-1 TN, respectively, which were three times greater than for dry climates. The N2 O EFs for sheep urine and dung in wet climates were 0.0043 and 0.0005, respectively. The use of nitrification inhibitors reduced emissions in swine manure, cattle urine/dung, and sheep urine by 45-63%. These enhanced EFs can improve national inventories; however, more data from poorly represented regions (e.g., Asia, Africa, South America) are needed.

DATAMAN: A global database of nitrous oxide and ammonia emission factors for excreta deposited by livestock and land-applied manure.

Nitrous oxide (N2 O), ammonia (NH3 ), and methane (CH4 ) emissions from the manure management chain of livestock production systems are important contributors to greenhouse gases (GHGs) and NH3 emitted by human activities. Several studies have evaluated manure-related emissions and associated key variables at regional, national, or continental scales. However, there have been few studies focusing on the drivers of these emissions using a global dataset. An international project was created (DATAMAN) to develop a global database on GHG and NH3 emissions from the manure management chain (housing, storage, and field) to identify key variables influencing emissions and ultimately to refine emission factors (EFs) for future national GHG inventories and NH3 emission reporting. This paper describes the "field" database that focuses on N2 O and NH3 EFs from land-applied manure and excreta deposited by grazing livestock. We collated relevant information (EFs, manure characteristics, soil properties, and climatic conditions) from published peer-reviewed research, conference papers, and existing databases. The database, containing 5,632 observations compiled from 184 studies, was relatively evenly split between N2 O and NH3 (56 and 44% of the EF values, respectively). The N2 O data were derived from studies conducted in 21 countries on five continents, with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Kenya, and Brazil representing 86% of the data. The NH3 data originated from studies conducted in 17 countries on four continents, with the United Kingdom, Denmark, Canada, and The Netherlands representing 79% of the data. Wet temperate climates represented 90% of the total database. The DATAMAN field database is available at http://www.dataman.co.nz.

Advances in data processing for open-path Fourier transform infrared spectrometry of greenhouse gases.

The automated quantification of three greenhouse gases, ammonia, methane, and nitrous oxide, in the vicinity of a large dairy farm by open-path Fourier transform infrared (OP/FT-IR) spectrometry at intervals of 5 min is demonstrated. Spectral pretreatment, including the automated detection and correction of the effect of interrupting the infrared beam, is by a moving object, and the automated correction for the nonlinear detector response is applied to the measured interferograms. Two ways of obtaining quantitative data from OP/FT-IR data are described. The first, which is installed in a recently acquired commercial OP/FT-IR spectrometer, is based on classical least-squares (CLS) regression, and the second is based on partial least-squares (PLS) regression. It is shown that CLS regression only gives accurate results if the absorption features of the analytes are located in very short spectral intervals where lines due to atmospheric water vapor are absent or very weak; of the three analytes examined, only ammonia fell into this category. On the other hand, PLS regression works allowed what appeared to be accurate results to be obtained for all three analytes.

Transport and fate of phosphorus during and after manure spill simulations.

Animal manure spills contribute to P loading of surface waters and little is known about the effectiveness of the current manure spill clean-up methods to mitigate P contamination. Manure spill clean-up consists of containing, removing, and land applying the contaminated water column, while P-enriched fluvial sediments remain in place. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (i) understand how P partitions between the water column and fluvial sediments during a manure spill, and (ii) evaluate the efficacy of current manure spill clean-up methods to remediate manure contaminated sediments. Manure spill simulations were conducted using fluvarium techniques and sediments collected from three drainage areas of two drainage ditches. Sediments with the greatest clay content (33%) resulted in a significantly greater P buffering capacity (10.3 L kg(-1)) and removed P from the water column at the greatest rate during the manure spill simulation relative to sediments with < 6% clay. Phosphorus uptake length for all sediments ranged from 574 to 815 m and the adsorption flux ranged from 8.9 to 16.7 mg m(-2) h(-1). After simulating the current manure spill remediation methods, P desorbed to the water from all sediments exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency total P criteria (0.076 mg L(-1)) for the region by at least 67%. Furthermore, results from this study suggest that the current manure spill remediation method needs refining to mitigate P from the total fluvial system water column and sediment following a spill.

Completely automated open-path FT-IR spectrometry.

Atmospheric analysis by open-path Fourier-transform infrared (OP/FT-IR) spectrometry has been possible for over two decades but has not been widely used because of the limitations of the software of commercial instruments. In this paper, we describe the current state-of-the-art of the hardware and software that constitutes a contemporary OP/FT-IR spectrometer. We then describe advances that have been made in our laboratory that have enabled many of the limitations of this type of instrument to be overcome. These include not having to acquire a single-beam background spectrum that compensates for absorption features in the spectra of atmospheric water vapor and carbon dioxide. Instead, an easily measured "short path-length" background spectrum is used for calculation of each absorbance spectrum that is measured over a long path-length. To accomplish this goal, the algorithm used to calculate the concentrations of trace atmospheric molecules was changed from classical least-squares regression (CLS) to partial least-squares regression (PLS). For calibration, OP/FT-IR spectra are measured in pristine air over a wide variety of path-lengths, temperatures, and humidities, ratioed against a short-path background, and converted to absorbance; the reference spectrum of each analyte is then multiplied by randomly selected coefficients and added to these background spectra. Automatic baseline correction for small molecules with resolved rotational fine structure, such as ammonia and methane, is effected using wavelet transforms. A novel method of correcting for the effect of the nonlinear response of mercury cadmium telluride detectors is also incorporated. Finally, target factor analysis may be used to detect the onset of a given pollutant when its concentration exceeds a certain threshold. In this way, the concentration of atmospheric species has been obtained from OP/FT-IR spectra measured at intervals of 1 min over a period of many hours with no operator intervention.

Airborne endotoxin concentrations at a large open-lot dairy in southern idaho.

Endotoxins are derived from gram-negative bacteria and are a potential respiratory health risk for animals and humans. To determine the potential for endotoxin transport from a large open-lot dairy, total airborne endotoxin concentrations were determined at an upwind location (background) and five downwind locations on three separate days. The downwind locations were situated at of the edge of the lot, 200 and 1390 m downwind from the lot, and downwind from a manure composting area and wastewater holding pond. When the wind was predominantly from the west, the average endotoxin concentration at the upwind location was 24 endotoxin units (EU) m(-3), whereas at the edge of the lot on the downwind side it was 259 EU m(-3). At 200 and 1390 m downwind from the edge of the lot, the average endotoxin concentrations were 168 and 49 EU m(-3), respectively. Average airborne endotoxin concentrations downwind from the composting site (36 EU m(-3)) and wastewater holding pond (89 EU m(-3)) and 1390 m from the edge of the lot were not significantly different from the upwind location. There were no significant correlations between ambient weather data collected and endotoxin concentrations over the experimental period. The downwind data show that the airborne endotoxin concentrations decreased exponentially with distance from the lot edge. Decreasing an individual's proximity to the dairy should lower their risk of airborne endotoxin exposure and associated health effects.