Functional chromopeptide nanoarchitectonics: molecular design, self-assembly and biological applications.

Chromoproteins are a class of delicate natural compounds that elegantly complex photosensitive species with proteins and play a central role in important life processes, such as photosynthesis. Inspired by chromoproteins, researchers integrate simple peptides and photosensitive molecular motifs to generate chromopeptides. Compared with chromoproteins, chromopeptides exhibit a relatively simple molecular structure, flexible and adjustable photophysical properties, and a capability of programmable self-assembly. Chromopeptide self-assembly has attracted great attention as the resultant high-level architectures exhibit an ingenious combination of photofunctions and biofunctions. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in chromopeptide nanoarchitectonics with particular focus on the design strategy, assembly mechanism, and structure-function relationship. Among them, the effect of peptide sequences and the variation in photophysical performance are critically emphasized. On this basis, various applications, including biomedicine and artificial photosynthesis, are discussed together with the future prospects of chromopeptide nanoarchitectonics. This review will provide insights into chromopeptide nanoarchitectonics and corresponding materials with precise designs, flexible nanostructures and versatile functions. In addition, knowledge involving chromopeptide nanoarchitectonics may aid in the development of many other kinds of supramolecular biological materials and bioengineering techniques.

Nanoarchitectonics of Vesicle Microreactors for Oscillating ATP Synthesis and Hydrolysis.

We construct a compartmentalized nanoarchitecture to regulate bioenergy level. Glucose dehydrogenase, urease and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide are encapsulated inside through liquid-liquid phase separation. ATPase and glucose transporter embedded in hybrid liposomes are attached at the surface. Glucose is transported and converted to gluconic acid catalyzed by glucose dehydrogenase, resulting in an outward proton gradient to drive ATPase for ATP synthesis. In parallel, urease catalyzes hydrolysis of urea to generate ammonia, which leads to an inward proton gradient to drive ATPase for ATP hydrolysis. These processes lead to a change of the direction of proton gradient, thus achieving artificial ATP oscillation. Importantly, the frequency and the amplitude of the oscillation can be programmed. The work explores nanoarchitectonics integrating multiple components to realize artificial and precise oscillation of bioenergy level.

Artificial Mitochondria Nanoarchitectonics via a Supramolecular Assembled Microreactor Covered by ATP Synthase.

Abiotic stress tends to induce oxidative damage to enzymes and organelles that in turns hampers the phosphorylation process and decreases the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) productivity. Artificial assemblies can alleviate abiotic stress and simultaneously provide nutrients to diminish the oxidative damage. Here, we have integrated natural acid phosphatase (ACP) and ATP synthase with plasmonic Au clusters in a biomimetic microreactor. ACP immobilized on the Au clusters is harnessed to generate proton influx to drive ATP synthase and concurrently supply phosphate to improve phosphorus availability to combat phosphorus-deficiency stress. In tandem with the reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging and the photothermal functionality of Au clusters, such an assembled microreactor exhibits an improved abiotic stress tolerance and achieves plasmon-accelerated ATP synthesis. This innovative approach offers an effective route to enhance the stress resistance of ATP synthase-based energy-generating systems, opening an exciting potential of these systems for biomimicking applications.

Nanoarchitectonics with a Membrane-Embedded Electron Shuttle Mimics the Bioenergy Anabolism of Mitochondria.

Enhanced bioenergy anabolism through transmembrane redox reactions in artificial systems remains a great challenge. Here, we explore synthetic electron shuttle to activate transmembrane chemo-enzymatic cascade reactions in a mitochondria-like nanoarchitecture for augmenting bioenergy anabolism. In this nanoarchitecture, a dendritic mesoporous silica microparticle as inner compartment possesses higher load capacity of NADH as proton source and allows faster mass transfer. In addition, the outer compartment ATP synthase-reconstituted proteoliposomes. Like natural enzymes in the mitochondrion respiratory chain, a small synthetic electron shuttle embedded in the lipid bilayer facilely mediates transmembrane redox reactions to convert NADH into NAD+ and a proton. These facilitate an enhanced outward proton gradient to drive ATP synthase to rotate for catalytic ATP synthesis with improved performance in a sustainable manner. This work opens a new avenue to achieve enhanced bioenergy anabolism by utilizing a synthetic electron shuttle and tuning inner nanostructures, holding great promise in wide-range ATP-powered bioapplications.

Photozyme-Catalyzed ATP Generation Based on ATP Synthase-Reconstituted Nanoarchitectonics.

We demonstrate that ATP synthase-reconstituted proteoliposome coatings on the surface of microcapsules can realize photozyme-catalyzed oxidative phosphorylation. The microcapsules were assembled through layer-by-layer deposition of semiconducting graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) nanosheets and polyelectrolytes. It is found that electrons from polyelectrolytes are transferred to g-C3N4 nanosheets, which enhances the separation of photogenerated electron-hole pairs. Thus, the encapsulated g-C3N4 nanosheets as the photozyme accelerate oxidation of glucose into gluconic acid to yield protons under light illumination. The outward transmembrane proton gradient is established to drive ATP synthase to synthesize adenosine triphosphate. With such an assembled system, light-driven oxidative phosphorylation is achieved. This indicates that an assembled photozyme can be used for oxidative phosphorylation, which creates an unusual way for chemical-to-biological energy conversion. Compared to conventional oxidative phosphorylation systems, such an artificial design enables higher energy conversion efficiency.

Microfabrication of peptide self-assemblies: inspired by nature towards applications.

Peptide self-assemblies show intriguing and tunable physicochemical properties, and thus have been attracting increasing interest over the last two decades. However, the micro/nano-scale dimensions of the self-assemblies severely restrict their extensive applications. Inspired by nature, to genuinely realize the practical utilization of the bio-organic super-architectures, it is beneficial to further organize the peptide self-assemblies to integrate the properties of the individual supermolecules and fabricate higher-level organizations for smart functional devices. Therefore, cumulative studies have been reported on peptide microfabrication giving rise to diverse properties. This review summarizes the recent development of the microfabrication of peptide self-assemblies, discussing each methodology along with the diverse properties and practical applications of the engineered peptide large-scale, highly-ordered organizations. Finally, the current limitations of the state-of-the-art microfabrication strategies are critically assessed and alternative solutions are suggested.

CO2 Induces Symmetry Breaking in Layered Dipeptide Crystals.

Control of symmetry breaking of materials provides large opportunities to regulate their properties and functions. Herein, we report breaking the symmetry of layered dipeptide crystals by utilizing CO2 to induce the adjacent monomolecular layers to stack from the opposite to the same direction. The role of CO2 is to cover the interlayer interaction sites and force the dipeptides to adsorb at asymmetric positions. Further, the dipeptide crystals exhibit far superior piezoelectricity after symmetry breaking and the piezoelectric voltage generated from the dipeptide-based generators becomes more than 500 % higher than before. This work reveals a potential route to engineer structures and properties of layered materials and provides a deep insight into the control of non-covalent interactions.

Tunable Chirality of Self-Assembled Dipeptides Mediated by Bipyridine Derivative.

Supramolecular peptide assemblies have been widely used for the development of biomedical, catalytical, and optical materials with chiral nanostructures in view of the intrinsic chirality of peptides. However, the assembly pathway and chiral transformation behavior of various peptides remain largely elusive especially for the transient assemblies under out-of-equilibrium conditions. Herein, the N-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl-protected phenylalanine-tyrosine dipeptide (Fmoc-FY) was used as a peptide assembly platform, which showed that the assembly proceeds multistep evolution. The original spheres caused by liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) can nucleate and elongate into the formation of right-handed helices which were metastable and easily converted into microribbons. Interestingly, a bipyridine derivative can be introduced to effectively control the assembly pathway and induce the formation of thermodynamically stable right-handed or left-handed helices at different stoichiometric ratios. In addition, the chiral assembly can also be regulated by ultrasound or enzyme catalysis. This minimalistic system not only broadens the nucleation-elongation mechanisms of protein aggregates but also promotes the controllable design and development of chiral biomaterials.

Emodin-Based Nanoarchitectonics with Giant Two-Photon Absorption for Enhanced Photodynamic Therapy.

Two-photon-excited photodynamic therapy (TPE-PDT) has significant advantages over conventional photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, obtaining easily accessible TPE photosensitizers (PSs) with high efficiency remains a challenge. Herein, we demonstrate that emodin (Emo), a natural anthraquinone (NA) derivative, is a promising TPE PS with a large two-photon absorption cross-section (TPAC: 380.9 GM) and high singlet oxygen (1 O2 ) quantum yield (31.9 %). When co-assembled with human serum albumin (HSA), the formed Emo/HSA nanoparticles (E/H NPs) possess a giant TPAC (4.02×107  GM) and desirable 1 O2 generation capability, thus showing outstanding TPE-PDT properties against cancer cells. In vivo experiments reveal that E/H NPs exhibit improved retention time in tumors and can ablate tumors at an ultra-low dosage (0.2 mg/kg) under an 800 nm femtosecond pulsed laser irradiation. This work is beneficial for the use of natural extracts NAs for high-efficiency TPE-PDT.

Flexible Recyclable Cellulose Paper Templated Cu-Doped Polydopamine Membranes with Dual Enzyme-Like Activity.

The development of high-efficiency enzyme mimics is of great significance in the field of biocatalysis. However, it remains challenging to design novel enzyme mimics with multiple enzyme-like activities, excellent stability, and good reusability. Herein, a facile molecular assembly strategy to construct dialdehyde cellulose (DAC) templated Cu-doped polydopamine (DAC@PDA/Cu) membrane with dual enzyme-like activities is presented. The Schiff base bonds formed between polydopamine (PDA) and DAC can not only accelerate the adhesion of PDA thin layer but also contribute to Cu-loading and high stability of DAC@PDA/Cu membrane. Importantly, the assembled DAC@PDA/Cu membrane exhibits a remarkable catalytic activity that is superior to the natural laccase along with high stability and excellent reusability. Moreover, the DAC@PDA/Cu membrane also demonstrates peroxidase-like activity, and it is successfully applied in the sensitive detection of ascorbic acid (AA). This work will provide a new paradigm methodology for rational design and practical applications of enzyme mimics based on bioinspired molecular assemblies.

Schiff Base Mediated Dipeptide Assembly toward Nanoarchitectonics.

Dynamic covalent chemistry (DCC) is fascinating because of its dual nature. It perfectly combines the reversible nature of noncovalent bonds with the robustness of covalent bonds, effectively enhancing the stability of assemblies and meanwhile giving rise to unprecedented properties. Therefore, integration of DCC with supramolecular chemistry has emerged as a versatile and an extraordinarily useful approach in directing peptide assembly. This Minireview focuses on a recent strategy, which exploits dynamic Schiff base chemistry in combination with supramolecular chemistry, to mediate dipeptide assembly toward nanoarchitectonics. Diversified structures, new emergent properties, and their related applications are highlighted. Lastly, the opportunities and prospects in this exciting field are also introduced.

Oriented Nanoarchitectonics of Bacteriorhodopsin for Enhancing ATP Generation in a Fo F1 -ATPase-Based Assembly System.

Energy conversion plays an important role in the metabolism of photosynthetic organisms. Improving energy transformation by promoting a proton gradient has been a great challenge for a long time. In the present study, we realize a directional proton migration through the construction of oriented bacteriorhodopsin (BR) microcapsules coated by Fo F1 -ATPase molecular motors through layer-by-layer (LBL) assembly. The changes in the conformation of BR under illumination lead to proton transfer in a radial direction, which generates a higher proton gradient to drive the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by Fo F1 -ATPase. Furthermore, to promote the photosynthetic activity, optically matched quantum dots were introduced into the artificial coassembly system of BR and Fo F1 -ATPase. Such a design creates a new path for the use of light energy.

Super Light-Sensitive Photosensitizer Nanoparticles for Improved Photodynamic Therapy against Solid Tumors.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an effective method for superficial cancer treatment. However, the limited light intensity in tissues, tumor hypoxia, and the low accumulation efficiency of photosensitizers (PSs) in tumors are still major challenges. Herein, we introduce super light-sensitive PS nanoparticles (designated HR NPs) that can increase singlet oxygen (1 O2 ) production and improve PS accumulation in tumors. HR NPs have the ability to produce a large amount of 1 O2 under ultralow power density light (0.05 mW cm-2 ) irradiation. More significantly, HR NPs have a long circulating time in tumor-bearing mice and can accumulate in tumors with high efficiency. When irradiated by light with a suitable wavelength, the nanoparticles exhibit excellent antitumor efficacy. This work will make it possible to cure solid tumors by PDT by enhancing the therapeutic effects.

Co-assembled Supramolecular Gel of Dipeptide and Pyridine Derivatives with Controlled Chirality.

It is commonly considered that amyloid-ß (Aß) fibrils are heavily involved in the neurological diseases. Establishing an external model based on the core recognition motif (diphenylalanine, FF) of Aß would be of significance in understanding the assembly and disassembly of Aß fibrils in living system. Herein, supramolecular gels with structure transition from amyloid-like ß-sheet to different supramolecular helices were obtained through the co-assembly of a N-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl-protected L-FF (L-FmocFF) with achiral pyridine derivatives. It is found that the different stacking modes (H- or J-aggregates) of additives and the microenvironment of chiral carbon play vital roles for the selectively chiral transfer or amplification of L-FmocFF. The dynamic process of helix formation was also captured. This work provides a convenient co-assembly way to explore the structure basis of Aß fibrils with a controlled chirality.

Boric Acid-Fueled ATP Synthesis by Fo F1 ATP Synthase Reconstituted in a Supramolecular Architecture.

Significant strides toward producing biochemical fuels have been achieved by mimicking natural oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation. Here, different from these strategies, we explore boric acid as a fuel for tuneable synthesis of energy-storing molecules in a cell-like supramolecular architecture. Specifically, a proton locked in boric acid is released in a modulated fashion by the choice of polyols. As a consequence, controlled proton gradients across the lipid membrane are established to drive ATP synthase embedded in the biomimetic architecture, which facilitates tuneable ATP production. This strategy paves a unique route to achieve highly efficient bioenergy conversion, holding broad applications in synthesis and devices that require biochemical fuels.

Embedment of Quantum Dots and Biomolecules in a Dipeptide Hydrogel Formed In Situ Using Microfluidics.

As low-molecular-weight hydrogelators, dipeptide hydrogel materials are suited for embedding multiple organic molecules and inorganic nanoparticles. Herein, a simple but precisely controllable method is presented that enables the fabrication of dipeptide-based hydrogels by supramolecular assembly inside microfluidic channels. Water-soluble quantum dots (QDs) as well as premixed porphyrins and a dipeptide in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) were injected into a Y-shaped microfluidic junction. At the DMSO/water interface, the confined fabrication of a dipeptide-based hydrogel was initiated. Thereafter, the as-formed hydrogel flowed along a meandering microchannel in a continuous fashion, gradually completing gelation and QD entrapment. In contrast to hydrogelation in conventional test tubes, microfluidically controlled hydrogelation led to a tailored dipeptide hydrogel regarding material morphology and nanoparticle distribution.

Molecular Assembly of Rotary and Linear Motor Proteins.

Molecular machines are an important and emerging frontier in research encompassing interdisciplinary subjects of chemistry, physics, biology, and nanotechnology. Although there has been major interest in creating synthetic molecular machines, research on natural molecular machines is also crucial. Biomolecular motors are natural molecular machines existing in nearly every living systems. They play a vital role in almost every essential process ranging from intracellular transport to cell division, muscle contraction and the biosynthesis of ATP that fuels life processes. The construction of biomolecular motor-based biomimetic systems can help not only to deeply understand the mechanisms of motor proteins in the biological process but also to push forward the development of bionics and biomolecular motor-based devices or nanomachines. From combination of natural biomolecular motors with supramolecular chemistry, great opportunities could emerge toward the development of intelligent molecular machines and biodevices. In this Account, we describe our efforts to design and reconstitute biomolecular motor-based active biomimetic systems, in particular, the combination of motor proteins with layer-by-layer (LbL) assembled cellular structures. They are divided into two parts: (i) reconstitution of rotary molecular motor FOF1-ATPase, which is coated on the surface of LbL assembled microcapsules or multilayers and synthesizes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through creating a proton gradient; (ii) molecular assembly of linear molecular motors, the kinesin-based active biomimetic systems, which are coated on a planar surface or LbL assembled tubular structure and drive the movement of microtubules. LbL assembled structures offer motor proteins with an environment that resembles the natural cell. This enables high activity and optimized function of the motor proteins. The assembled biomolecular motors can mimic their functionalities from the natural system. In addition, LbL assembly provides facile integration of functional components into motor protein-based active biomimetic systems and achieves the manipulation of FOF1-ATPase and kinesin. For FOF1-ATPase, the light-driven proton gradient and controlled ATP synthesis are highlighted. For kinesin, the strategies used for the direction and velocity control of kinesin-based molecular shuttles are discussed. We hope this research can inspire new ideas and propel the actual applications of biomolecular motor-based devices in the future.

Photoactive properties of supramolecular assembled short peptides.

Bioinspired nanostructures can be the ideal functional smart materials to bridge the fundamental biology, biomedicine and nanobiotechnology fields. Among them, short peptides are among the most preferred building blocks as they can self-assemble to form versatile supramolecular architectures displaying unique physical and chemical properties, including intriguing optical features. Herein, we discuss the progress made over the past few decades in the design and characterization of optical short peptide nanomaterials, focusing on their intrinsic photoluminescent and waveguiding performances, along with the diverse modulation strategies. We review the complicated optical properties and the advanced applications of photoactive short peptide self-assemblies, including photocatalysis, as well as photothermal and photodynamic therapy. The diverse advantages of photoactive short peptide self-assemblies, such as eco-friendliness, morphological and functional flexibility, and ease of preparation and modification, endow them with the capability to potentially serve as next-generation, bio-organic optical materials, allowing the bridging of the optics world and the nanobiotechnology field.

Photodynamic Therapy with Liposomes Encapsulating Photosensitizers with Aggregation-Induced Emission.

As a noninvasive treatment, photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising strategy against tumors. It is based on photosensitizer (PS)-induced phototoxicity after irradiation. However, most clinically approved PSs will be widely distributed in normal tissues, especially in the skin, where they will induce phototoxicity on exposure to light. Therefore, patients must remain in a dark room for up to several weeks during or after a PDT. Herein, we proposed a strategy of aggregation-induced emission PSs (AIE-PSs) entrapped in liposomes with controlled photosensitization. The AIE-PSs begin to lose their photosensitivity when entrapped in liposomes. After liposomes have carried AIE-PSs into tumor tissues, the AIE-PSs will be released and immediately reaggregate in a targeted area as the liposomes are decomposed. Their photosensitivity can be triggered at turn-on state and induce cytotoxicity. Two different types of AIE molecules were synthesized and entrapped by liposomes, respectively, to verify the PDT features against tumors in vitro and in vivo. The results indicate that, using this strategy, the photosensitivity of AIE-PS can be controlled and PDT can be treated under normal working conditions, not necessarily in a dark room.

A Dipeptide-Based Hierarchical Nanoarchitecture with Enhanced Catalytic Activity.

Achieving synthetic architectures with simple structures and robust biomimetic catalytic activities remains a great challenge. Herein, we explore a facile supramolecular assembly approach to construct a dipeptide-based hierarchical nanoarchitecture with enhanced enzyme-like catalytic activity. In this nanoarchitecture, nanospheres are put in a chain-like arrangement through coordination-driven directional self-assembly. The reversible transformation of anisotropic nanochains to isotropic nanospheres switches biomimetic activity. Notably, the assembled nanoarchitecture exhibits a high enzyme-like activity and remarkable long-term stability to promote hydroquinone oxidation, superior to the natural counterpart. This work will pave the way to develop reversible and reusable supramolecular biocatalysts with ordered hierarchical structures for accelerating chemical transformations.