Design, synthesis and glycosidase inhibition of DAB derivatives with C-4 peptide and dipeptide branches.

A series of DAB-peptide and DAB-dipeptide derivatives were synthesized from D-tartrate-derived nitrone 18. The DAB peptides 16 are derivatives of trans,trans-3,4-dihydroxy-L-proline. Glycosidase inhibition assay found four of them to be weak and selective bovine liver ß-galactosidase inhibitors, and the C-2' methyl substituted compound 23b showed the most potent ß-galactosidase inhibition (IC50 = 0.66 µM). Molecular docking studies revealed different docking modes of compound 23b compared to those of other DAB-peptides, and partial similarity of compound 23b to DGJ.

Design and synthesis of iso-allo-DNJ and L-isoDALDP derivatives: pursuit of potent and selective inhibitors of α-glucosidase.

A series of iso-allo-DNJ and L-isoDALDP derivatives were synthesized from dithioacetal 16 with sequential and highly diastereoselective Ho and Henry reactions, and aziridinium intermediate-mediated ring rearrangement as key steps. Glycosidase inhibition assay found four of them as selective α-glucosidase inhibitors, and the less substituted compound 30 showed more potent α-glucosidase inhibition (IC50 = 9.3 µM) than the others. Molecular docking study revealed different docking modes of the iso-allo-DNJ and L-isoDALDP derivatives from their parent compounds, and also the similarity of compound 30 to isofagomine.

Diastereoselective Synthesis, Glycosidase Inhibition, and Docking Study of C-7-Fluorinated Casuarine and Australine Derivatives.

C-7-fluorinated derivatives of two important polyhydroxylated pyrrolizidines, casuarine and australine, were synthesized with organocatalytic stereoselective α-fluorination of aldehydes as the key step. The strategy is extensively applicable to some synthetically challenging fluorinated iminosugars and carbohydrates. The docking studies indicated that the potent inhibitions of trehalase and amyloglucosidase by the fluorinated polyhydroxylated pyrrolizidines are due to the interaction modes dominated by fluorine atoms in these iminosugars with the amino acids' residues of the corresponding enzymes. Steady interactions were established between the C-7 fluoride and a hydrophobic pocket in amyloglucosidase by untypical anion-π interactions. These unexpected docking modes and related structure-activity relationship studies emphasize the value of fluorination in the design of polyhydroxylated pyrrolizidine glycosidase inhibitors.

De Novo Synthesis of Orthogonally-Protected C2-Fluoro Digitoxoses and Cymaroses: Development and Application for the Synthesis of Fluorinated Digoxin.

Inspired by Roush's pioneering work on rare sugars, we have developed a scalable, stereoselective, de novo synthesis of orthogonally protected C2-fluoro digitoxose and cymarose, utilizing Sharpless kinetic resolution and organocatalytic fluorination as key steps. The utility of this strategy is demonstrated by the synthesis of a fluorinated analogue of digoxin, which indicates the fluorine on the sugar ring may have a significant impact on biological activity.

Introduction of C-alkyl branches to L-iminosugars changes their active site binding orientation.

L-ido-Deoxynojirimycin (L-ido-DNJ) itself showed no affinity for human lysosomal acid α-glucosidase (GAA), whereas 5-C-methyl-L-ido-DNJ showed a strong affinity for GAA, comparable to the glucose analog DNJ, with a Ki value of 0.060 µM. This excellent affinity for GAA and enzyme stabilization was observed only when methyl and ethyl groups were introduced. Docking simulation analysis revealed that the alkyl chains of 5-C-alkyl-L-ido-DNJs were stored in three different pockets, depending on their length, thereby the molecular orientation was changed. Comparison of the binding poses of DNJ and 5-C-methyl-L-ido-DNJ showed that they formed a common ionic interaction with Asp404, Asp518, and Asp616, but both the binding orientation and the distance between the ligand and each amino acid residue were different. 5-C-Methyl-L-ido-DNJ dose-dependently increased intracellular GAA activity in Pompe patient fibroblasts with the M519V mutation and also promoted enzyme transport to lysosomes. This study provides the first example of a strategy to design high-affinity ligands by introducing alkyl branches into rare sugars and L-sugar-type iminosugars to change the orientation of binding.

Stereocomplementary synthesis of casuarine and its 6-epi-, 7-epi-, and 6,7-diepi-stereoisomers.

Four diastereomers belonging to the family of casuarines, including casuarine (1), 6-epi-casuarine (2), 7-epi-casuarine (13) and 6,7-diepi-casuarine (14), have been synthesized from D-arabinose-derived cyclic nitrone 7 and nitrone-derived aldehyde 4 by a stereocomplementary strategy. Glycosidase inhibition comparison showed that 6-epi-casuarine (2) exhibits enhanced inhibition of trehalase (IC50 = 9.7 µM) and 6,7-diepi-casuarine (14) leads to specific inhibition of trehalase.

Synthesis and glycosidase inhibition of N-substituted derivatives of 1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-d-mannitol (DIM).

N-Substituted derivatives of 1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-d-mannitol (DIM), the pyrrolidine core of swainsonine, have been synthesized efficiently and stereoselectively from d-mannose with 2,3:5,6-di-O-isopropylidene DIM (10) as a key intermediate. These N-substituted derivatives include N-alkylated, N-alkenylated, N-hydroxyalkylated and N-aralkylated DIMs with the carbon number of the alkyl chain ranging from one to nine. The obtained 33 N-substituted DIM derivatives were assayed against various glycosidases, which allowed a systematic evaluation of their glycosidase inhibition profiles. Though N-substitution of DIM decreased their α-mannosidase inhibitory activities, some of the derivatives showed significant inhibition of other glycosidases.

Synthesis of Pyrrolidine Monocyclic Analogues of Pochonicine and Its Stereoisomers: Pursuit ofSimplified Structures and Potent ß-N-Acetylhexosaminidase Inhibition.

Ten pairs of pyrrolidine analogues of pochonicine and its stereoisomers have been synthesized from four enantiomeric pairs of polyhydroxylated cyclic nitrones. Among the ten N-acetylamino pyrrolidine analogues, only compounds with 2,5-dideoxy-2,5-imino-d-mannitol (DMDP) and pochonicine (1) configurations showed potent inhibition of ß-N-acetylhexosaminidases (ß-HexNAcases); while 1-amino analogues lost almost all their inhibitions towards the tested enzymes. The assay results reveal the importance of the N-acetylamino group and the possible right configurations of pyrrolidine ring required for this type of inhibitors.

Synthesis and Glycosidase Inhibition of Broussonetine M and Its Analogues.

Cross-metathesis (CM) and Keck asymmetric allylation, which allows access to defined stereochemistry of a remote side chain hydroxyl group, are the key steps in a versatile synthesis of broussonetine M (3) from the d-arabinose-derived cyclic nitrone 14. By a similar strategy, ent-broussonetine M (ent-3) and six other stereoisomers have been synthesized, respectively, starting from l-arabino-nitrone (ent-14), l-lyxo-nitrone (ent-3-epi-14), and l-xylo-nitrone (2-epi-14) in five steps, in 26%-31% overall yield. The natural product broussonetine M (3) and 10'-epi-3 were potent inhibitors of ß-glucosidase (IC50 = 6.3 µM and 0.8 µM, respectively) and ß-galactosidase (IC50 = 2.3 µM and 0.2 µM, respectively); while their enantiomers, ent-3 and ent-10'-epi-3, were selective and potent inhibitors of rice α-glucosidase (IC50 = 1.2 µM and 1.3 µM, respectively) and rat intestinal maltase (IC50 = 0.29 µM and 18 µM, respectively). Both the configuration of the polyhydroxylated pyrrolidine ring and C-10' hydroxyl on the alkyl side chain affect the specificity and potency of glycosidase inhibition.

Specific calcineurin isoforms are involved in Drosophila toll immune signaling.

Because excessive or inadequate responses can be detrimental, immune responses to infection require appropriate regulation. Networks of signaling pathways establish versatility of immune responses. Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model organism for dissecting conserved innate immune responses to infection. For example, the Toll pathway, which promotes activation of NF-κB transcription factors Dorsal/Dorsal-related immune factor (Dif), was first identified in Drosophila. Together with the IMD pathway, acting upstream of NF-κB transcription factor Relish, these pathways constitute a central immune signaling network. Inputs in these pathways contribute to specific and appropriate responses to microbial insults. Relish activity during infection is modulated by Ca(2+)-dependent serine/threonine phosphatase calcineurin, an important target of immunosuppressants in transplantation biology. Only one of the three Drosophila calcineurin isoforms, calcineurin A1, acts on Relish during infection. However, it is not known whether there is a role for calcineurin in Dorsal/Dif immune signaling. In this article, we demonstrate involvement of specific calcineurin isoforms, protein phosphatase at 14D (Pp2B-14D)/calcineurin A at 14F (CanA-14F), in Toll-mediated immune signaling. These isoforms do not affect IMD signaling. In cell culture, pharmacological inhibition of calcineurin or RNA interference against homologous calcineurin isoforms Pp2B-14D/CanA-14F, but not against isoform calcineurin A1, decreased Toll-dependent Dorsal/Dif activity. A Pp2B-14D gain-of-function transgene promoted Dorsal nuclear translocation and Dorsal/Dif activity. In vivo, Pp2B-14D/CanA-14F RNA interference attenuated the Dorsal/Dif-dependent response to infection without affecting the Relish-dependent response. Altogether, these data identify a novel input, calcineurin, in Toll immune signaling and demonstrate involvement of specific calcineurin isoforms in Drosophila NF-κB signaling.

Concise synthesis of calystegines B2 and B3via intramolecular Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi reaction.

The key step in the concise syntheses of calystegine B2 and its C-2 epimer calystegine B3 was the construction of cycloheptanone 8via an intramolecular Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi (NHK) reaction of 9, an aldehyde containing a Z-vinyl iodide. Vinyl iodide 9 was obtained by the Stork olefination of aldehyde 10, derived from carbohydrate starting materials. Calystegines B2 (3) and B3 (4) were synthesized from d-xylose and l-arabinose derivatives respectively in 11 steps in excellent overall yields (27% and 19%).

First total synthesis of (+)-broussonetine W: glycosidase inhibition of natural product & analogs.

The first total synthesis of (+)-broussonetine W (4), a naturally-occurring pyrrolidine iminosugar isolated from the traditional Chinese medical plant Broussonetia kazinoki SIEB (Moraceae), has been completed through a concise synthetic route starting from the readily available d-arabinose derived cyclic nitrone 10 in 11 steps and 31% overall yield, with regioselective installation of the α,ß-unsaturated ketone functional group by the elimination of HBr from α-bromoketone as the key step. A number of analogs of (+)-broussonetine W (4) with variable side chain length, different polyhydroxylated pyrrolidine core configurations or saturated cyclohexanones have also been prepared to explore the glycosidase inhibition and the preliminary structure-activity relationship of this intriguing class of compounds. Glycosidase inhibition studies identified the natural product (+)-broussonetine W (4) as a selective and potent inhibitor of ß-galactosidase (IC50 = 0.03 µM), while its enantiomer was a selective and potent inhibitor of α-glucosidase (IC50 = 0.047 µM). It was found that the configuration of the polyhydroxylated pyrrolidine ring played a key role on their glycosidase inhibitory activities. The length of side chain and α,ß-unsaturated ketone functional group also exhibited some effect on their glycosidase inhibition.

Epimerization of C5 of an N-hydroxypyrrolidine in the synthesis of swainsonine related iminosugars.

Epimerization of C5 of an N-hydroxypyrrolidine ring by regioselective oxidation to a nitrone followed by diastereoselective reduction provides a new approach to the synthesis of swainsonine and related compounds. The only protection in the synthesis of the potent mannosidase inhibitor DIM (1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-d-mannitol) was the acetonation of d-mannose.

Gem-difluoromethylated and trifluoromethylated derivatives of DMDP-related iminosugars: synthesis and glycosidase inhibition.

Gem-difluoromethylated and trifluoromethylated derivatives of DMDP-related iminosugars have been synthesized from cyclic nitrones 12, 13, 18, ent-18 or 23 and nitrone-derived aldehydes 20 or ent-20. The fluorinated iminosugars were assayed against various glycosidases, and ent-8 showed moderate but selective α-l-rhamnosidase inhibition. Difluoro or trifluoro units influenced the inhibitory activities of iminosugars in a more complex manner than single fluoro substitution. This may be correlated with their highly hydrophobic character and strong electron-withdrawing effect.

Fluorinated and Conformationally Fixed Derivatives of L-HomoDMDP: Synthesis and Glycosidase Inhibition.

Fluorinated and conformationally fixed derivatives of L-homoDMDP, i.e., 2,5-dideoxy-2,5-imino-DL-glycero-L-manno-heptitol, have been synthesized from d-xylose-derived cyclic nitrone 10 with oxazolidinone 19 or 28 and oxazinanone 22 or 32 as key intermediates. An evaluation of glycosidase inhibition showed replacement of the C-6 hydroxyl groups with fluoride in L-homoDMDP and its C-6 epimer did not have a significant influence on α-glucosidase inhibition by these iminosugars, while replacement of an amino group with a cyclic carbamate group in most conformationally fixed derivatives led to a sharp decrease in the level of glycosidase inhibition, revealing the importance of the free amino group in interaction of enzymes with these molecules.

Development of Novel N-Acylhydrazone Derivatives with High Anti-obesity Activity and Improved Safety by Exploring the Pharmaceutical Properties of Aldehyde Group.

The discovery of effective and safe antiobesity agents remains a challenging yet promising field. Our previous studies identified Bouchardatine derivatives as potential antiobesity agents. However, the 8a-aldehyde moiety rendered them unsuitable for drug development. In this study, we designed two series of novel derivatives to modify this structural feature. Through a structure-activity relationship study, we elucidated the role of the 8a-aldehyde group in toxicity induction. We identified compound 14d, featuring an 8a-N-acylhydrazone moiety, which exhibited significant lipid-lowering activity and reduced toxicity. Compound 14d shares a similar lipid-lowering mechanism with our lead compound 3, but demonstrates improved pharmacokinetic properties and safety profile. Both oral and injectable administration of 14d significantly reduced body weight gain and ameliorated metabolic syndrome in diet-induced obese mice. Our findings identify 14d as a promising antiobesity agent and highlight the potential of substituting the aldehyde group with an N-acylhydrazone to enhance drug-like properties.

Design and synthesis of 6-C-alkyl-DMDP type nanomolar inhibitors of ß-galactosidase and ß-glucosidase based on broussonetine S and related derivatives.

Broussonetine S (9), its C-1' and C-10' stereoisomers, and their corresponding enantiomers have been synthesized from enantiomeric arabinose-derived cyclic nitrones, with cross metathesis (CM), epoxidation and Keck asymmetric allylation as key steps. Glycosidase inhibition assays showed that broussonetine S (9) and its C-10' epimer (10'-epi-9) were nanomolar inhibitors of bovine liver ß-galactosidase and ß-glucosidase; while their C-1' stereoisomers were 10-fold less potent towards these enzymes. The glycosidase inhibition results and molecular docking calculations revealed the importance of the configurations of pyrrolidine core and C-1' hydroxyl for inhibition potency and spectra. Together with the docking calculations we previously reported for α-1-C-alkyl-DAB derivatives, we designed and synthesized a series of 6-C-alkyl-DMDP derivatives with very simple alkyl chains. The inhibition potency of these derivatives was enhanced by increasing the length of the side chain, and maintained at nanomolar scale inhibitions of bovine liver ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase after the alkyl groups are longer than eight or ten carbons for the (6R)-C-alkyl-DMDP derivatives and their 6S epimers, respectively. Molecular docking calculations indicated that each series of 6-C-alkyl-DMDP derivatives resides in the same active site of ß-glucosidase or ß-galactosidase with basically similar binding conformations, and their C-6 long alkyl chains extend outwards along the hydrophobic groove with similar orientations. The increasing inhibitions of ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase with the number of carbon atoms in the side chains may be explained by improved adaptability of longer alkyl chains in the hydrophobic grooves. In addition, the lower ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase inhibitions of (6S)-C-alkyl-DMDP derivatives than their C-6 R stereoisomers can be attributed to the misfolding of their alkyl chains and resulted decreased adaptability in the hydrophobic groove. The work reported herein is valuable for design and development of more potent and selective inhibitors of ß-galactosidase and ß-glucosidase, which have potential in treatment of lysosomal storage diseases. Furthermore, part of the 6-C-alkyl-DMDP derivatives and their enantiomers were also tested as potential anti-cancer agents; all the compounds tested were found with moderate cytotoxic effects on MKN45 cells, which would indicate potential applications of these iminosugars in development of novel anticancer agents.

General intermediates for the synthesis of 6-C-alkylated DMDP-related natural products.

Protected L-homoDMDP en-8 and its C-6 epimer en-7 were prepared through two different pathways starting from the vinylpyrrolidine en-9. Based on the NMR and X-ray analysis, the stereochemistry of homoDMDP at C-6 was confirmed to be consistent with reported data. Compounds en-7 and en-8 are general intermediates for the synthesis of a series of 6-C-alkylated DMDP-related natural products, such as broussonetine G, homoDMDP-7-O-apioside, homoDMDP-7-O-b-D-xyloside and so on.

Application of electroacupuncture in the prevention of low anterior resection syndrome after rectal cancer surgery.

BACKGROUND: Low anterior resection syndrome (LARS) is one of the common postoperative complications in patients with rectal cancer, which seriously affects their postoperative recovery and quality of life (QoL). Electroacupuncture therapy is one of the characteristic therapies of traditional Chinese medicine. There are few reports on the prevention and treatment of LARS by electroacupuncture therapy. AIM: To explore the clinical effectiveness of electroacupuncture in managing rectal cancer patients with postoperative LARS. METHODS: A total of 50 patients with LARS after rectal cancer surgery were retrospectively selected as the research subjects. According to the treatment methods, they were divided into an observation group (n = 25) and a control group (n = 25). During the four-week treatment period, the control group received standard defecation function training, while the observation group received electroacupuncture care and traditional defecation function training. The anal pressure index (which includes anal resting pressure, anal systolic pressure, and maximum tolerable volume), European Organization of Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC) QoL C30 (QLQ-C30) score, LARS Scale (LARSS) score, Wexner anal incontinence scale score, Xu Zhongfa five-item 10-point scale score, and the occurrence of adverse reactions were compared between the two groups before and after treatment. RESULTS: The experimental group showed considerably enhanced LARSS scores compared to those in the control group after four weeks of treatment. In the first week, second week, and fourth week, the LARSS score and Wexner anal incontinence scale score decreased, and the Xu Zhong method five-item 10-point scale score increased, with significant differences (P < 0.05). The experimental group showed substantial improvements in anal resting pressure, anal systolic pressure, and maximum tolerance volume after undergoing 4 wk of therapy in the untreated group (P < 0.05). The experimental group's QLQ-C30 score on the EORTC QoL questionnaire was higher than that of the control group during the 1st, 2nd, and 4th wk (P < 0.05). No significant variation between the groups in the frequency of adverse reactions (P > 0.05) was observed. CONCLUSION: Electroacupuncture positively impacted LARS following rectal cancer surgery, effectively improving clinical symptoms and anal pressure indicators and patients' standard of life.

Nanomolar ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase inhibition by enantiomeric α-1-C-alkyl-1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-arabinitol derivatives.

A series of α-1-C-alkyl DAB (1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-d-arabinitol) and LAB (1,4-dideoxy-1,4-imino-l-arabinitol) derivatives with aryl substituents have been designed as analogues of broussonetine W (12), and assayed as glycosidase inhibitors. While the inhibition spectrum of α-1-C-alkyl DAB derivative 16 showed a good correlation to that of broussonetine W (12), introduction of substituents on the terminal aryl (17a-f) or hydroxyl groups at C-1' position of the alkyl chains (18a-e) decreased their α-glucosidase inhibitions but greatly improved their inhibitions of bovine liver ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase. Furthermore, epimerization of C-1' configurations of compounds 18a-e clearly lowered their inhibition potency of bovine liver ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase. Notably, some of the α-1-C-alkyl DAB derivatives were also found to have potent human lysosome ß-glucosidase inhibitions. In contrast, enantiomers of compounds 18a-e and 1'-epi-18a-e generally showed increased α-glucosidase inhibitions, but sharply decreased bovine liver ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase inhibitions. Molecular docking calculations unveiled the novel two set of binding modes for each series of compounds; introduction of C-1' hydroxyl altered the conformations of the pyrrolidine rings and orientation of their long chains, resulting in improved accommodation in the hydrophobic grooves. The compounds reported herein are very potent ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase inhibitions with novel binding mode; and the structure-activity relationship provides guidance for design and development of more pyrrolidine pharmacological chaperones for lysosomal storage diseases.