Integrated transcriptome and physiological analysis revealed core transcription factors that promote flavonoid biosynthesis in apricot in response to pathogenic fungal infection.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Integrated transcriptome and physiological analysis of apricot leaves after Fusarium solani treatment. In addition, we identified core transcription factors and flavonoid-related synthase genes which may function in apricot disease resistance. Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) is an important economic fruit species, whose yield and quality of fruit are limited owing to its susceptibility to diseases. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the response of P. armeniaca to diseases is still unknown. In this study, we used physiology and transcriptome analysis to characterize responses of P. armeniaca subjected to Fusarium solani. The results showed increasing malondialdehyde (MDA) content, enhanced peroxidase (POD) and catalase (CAT) activity during F. solani infestation. A large number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs), which included 4281 upregulated DEGs and 3305 downregulated DEGs, were detected in P. armeniaca leaves exposed to F. solani infestation. Changes in expression of transcription factors (TFs), including bHLH, AP2/ERF, and WRKY indicated their role in triggering pathogen-responsive genes in P. armeniaca. During the P. armeniaca response to F. solani infestation, the content of total flavonoid was changed, and we identified enzyme genes associated with flavonoid biosynthesis. Ectopic overexpression of PabHLH15 and PabHLH102 in Nicotiana benthamiana conferred elevated resistance to Fspa_1. Moreover, PabHLH15 and PabHLH102 positively interact with the promoter of flavonoid biosynthesis-related genes. A regulatory network of TFs regulating enzyme genes related to flavonoid synthesis affecting apricot disease resistance was constructed. These results reveal the potential underlying mechanisms of the F. solani response of P. armeniaca, which would help improve the disease resistance of P. armeniaca and may cultivate high-quality disease-resistant varieties in the future.

Membrane Dynamics Regulated by Cytoskeleton in Plant Immunity.

The plasma membrane (PM), which is composed of a lipid layer implanted with proteins, has diverse functions in plant responses to environmental triggers. The heterogenous dynamics of lipids and proteins in the plasma membrane play important roles in regulating cellular activities with an intricate pathway that orchestrates reception, signal transduction and appropriate response in the plant immune system. In the process of the plasma membrane participating in defense responses, the cytoskeletal elements have important functions in a variety of ways, including regulation of protein and lipid dynamics as well as vesicle trafficking. In this review, we summarized how the plasma membrane contributed to plant immunity and focused on the dynamic process of cytoskeleton regulation of endocytosis and exocytosis and propose future research directions.

Hormonal Regulation and Stimulation Response of Jatropha curcas L. Homolog Overexpression on Tobacco Leaf Growth by Transcriptome Analysis.

The Flowering locus T (FT) gene encodes the florigen protein, which primarily regulates the flowering time in plants. Recent studies have shown that FT genes also significantly affect plant growth and development. The FT gene overexpression in plants promotes flowering and suppresses leaf and stem development. This study aimed to conduct a transcriptome analysis to investigate the multiple effects of Jatropha curcas L. homolog (JcFT) overexpression on leaf growth in tobacco plants. The findings revealed that JcFT overexpression affected various biological processes during leaf development, including plant hormone levels and signal transduction, lipid oxidation metabolism, terpenoid metabolism, and the jasmonic-acid-mediated signaling pathway. These results suggested that the effects of FT overexpression in plants were complex and multifaceted, and the combination of these factors might contribute to a reduction in the leaf size. This study comprehensively analyzed the effects of JcFT on leaf development at the transcriptome level and provided new insights into the function of FT and its homologous genes.

The Cytoskeleton in Plant Immunity: Dynamics, Regulation, and Function.

The plant cytoskeleton, consisting of actin filaments and microtubules, is a highly dynamic filamentous framework involved in plant growth, development, and stress responses. Recently, research has demonstrated that the plant cytoskeleton undergoes rapid remodeling upon sensing pathogen attacks, coordinating the formation of microdomain immune complexes, the dynamic and turnover of pattern-recognizing receptors (PRRs), the movement and aggregation of organelles, and the transportation of defense compounds, thus serving as an important platform for responding to pathogen infections. Meanwhile, pathogens produce effectors targeting the cytoskeleton to achieve pathogenicity. Recent findings have uncovered several cytoskeleton-associated proteins mediating cytoskeletal remodeling and defense signaling. Furthermore, the reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton is revealed to further feedback-regulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and trigger salicylic acid (SA) signaling, suggesting an extremely complex role of the cytoskeleton in plant immunity. Here, we describe recent advances in understanding the host cytoskeleton dynamics upon sensing pathogens and summarize the effectors that target the cytoskeleton. We highlight advances in the regulation of cytoskeletal remodeling associated with the defense response and assess the important function of the rearrangement of the cytoskeleton in the immune response. Finally, we propose suggestions for future research in this area.

Regulation of cytoskeleton-associated protein activities: Linking cellular signals to plant cytoskeletal function.

The plant cytoskeleton undergoes dynamic remodeling in response to diverse developmental and environmental cues. Remodeling of the cytoskeleton coordinates growth in plant cells, including trafficking and exocytosis of membrane and wall components during cell expansion, and regulation of hypocotyl elongation in response to light. Cytoskeletal remodeling also has key functions in disease resistance and abiotic stress responses. Many stimuli result in altered activity of cytoskeleton-associated proteins, microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) and actin-binding proteins (ABPs). MAPs and ABPs are the main players determining the spatiotemporally dynamic nature of the cytoskeleton, functioning in a sensory hub that decodes signals to modulate plant cytoskeletal behavior. Moreover, MAP and ABP activities and levels are precisely regulated during development and environmental responses, but our understanding of this process remains limited. In this review, we summarize the evidence linking multiple signaling pathways, MAP and ABP activities and levels, and cytoskeletal rearrangements in plant cells. We highlight advances in elucidating the multiple mechanisms that regulate MAP and ABP activities and levels, including calcium and calmodulin signaling, ROP GTPase activity, phospholipid signaling, and post-translational modifications.

[Historical evolution of Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma processing methods].

China has a long history of Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma processing with multiple methods available. The pre-sent study collated and summarized the Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma processing methods recorded in 23 related herbal medicine books, all editions of Chinese Pharmacopoeia, the 1988 edition of National Regulations for Processing of Chinese Medicine, and 20 current local processing specifications and standards. The results demonstrated various processing methods of Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma, such as removing residual part of stem, plantlet, or soil, smashing, filing, cutting, decocting, washing with wine, soaking in wine, and stir-frying with wine or blood from pig heart, while raw and wine-processed products are mainly used in modern times. Due to the lack of unified standards, the phenomena of multiple methods adopted in one place and different methods in different places have led to uneven quality of Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma pieces, even affecting the safety and effectiveness of its clinical medication. This study is expected to provide a reference for the development of Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma processing and its rational medication.

Finding a resveratrol analogue as potential anticancer agent with apoptosis and cycle arrest.

Resveratrol has been extensively studied as the anti-cancer agent. A variety of resveratrol analogues have been developed with structural modification to improve its bioactivity. In this work, resveratrol analogues, compound 1-4, were designed and synthesized with the Stille-Heck reaction. These results showed compound 1-4 had better anticancer effect than that of parent resveratrol. Especially compound 1 ((E)-4,4'-(ethene-1,2-diyl)bis(3-methylphenol)) displayed the excellent cytotoxicity and high selectivity. The mechanism research indicated compound 1 inhibited cell proliferation by binary paths of cell cycle arrest in S phase regulated by cyclin A1/A2 and apoptosis induction mediated by Bax/Bcl2 in a prooxidant manner.

COP1 mediates dark-specific degradation of microtubule-associated protein WDL3 in regulating Arabidopsis hypocotyl elongation.

CONSTITUTIVE PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1 (COP1), a well-known E3 ubiquitin ligase, functions as a central regulator of plant growth and photomorphogenic development in plants, including hypocotyl elongation. It has been well-established that, in darkness, COP1 targets many photomorphogenesis-promoting factors for ubiquitination and degradation in the nucleus. However, increasing evidence has shown that a proportion of COP1 is also localized outside the nucleus in dark-grown seedlings, but the physiological function of this localization remains largely unclear. In this study, we demonstrate that COP1 directly targets and mediates the degradation of WAVE-DAMPENED 2-LIKE 3 (WDL3) protein, a member of the microtubule-associated protein (MAP) WVD2/WDL family involved in regulating hypocotyl cell elongation of Arabidopsis seedlings. We show that COP1 interacts with WDL3 in vivo in a dark-dependent manner at cortical microtubules. Moreover, our data indicate that COP1 directly ubiquitinates WDL3 in vitro and that WDL3 protein is degraded in WT seedlings but is abundant in the cop1 mutant in the dark. Consistently, introduction of the wdl3 mutation weakened, whereas overexpression of WDL3 enhanced, the short-hypocotyl phenotype of cop1 mutant in darkness. Together, this study reveals a function of COP1 in regulating the protein turnover of a cytosol-localized MAP in etiolated hypocotyls, thus providing insights into COP1-mediated degradation of downstream factors to control seedling photomorphogenesis.

As2 O3 combined with leflunomide prolongs heart xenograft survival via suppressing the response of Th1, Th2, and B cells in a rat model.

Xenotransplantation remits the severe shortage of human organs and tissues for transplantation, which is a problem that severely limits the application of transplantation to the treatment of human disease. However, severe immune rejection significantly limits the efficacy of xenotransplantation. In this study, we systematically investigated the immunosuppressive effect and mechanism of action of As2 O3 and leflunomide using a hamster-to-rat heart xenotransplantation model. We initially examined heart xenograft survival following As2 O3 and leflunomide treatment alone or combined treatment. We found that treatment with As2 O3 combined with leflunomide can significantly prolong the survival of heart xenograft by inhibiting Th1 and Th2 differentiation and reducing the production of IgG and IgM. Interestingly, As2 O3 and leflunomide showed low toxicity to the organs of the recipient. Taken together, these observations indicate that treatment with As2 O3 combined with leflunomide may be a promising immunosuppressive schedule for xenotransplantation.

Constituents from the Roots of Actinidia chinensis and Their Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Inhibitory Activities.

A newly discovered triterpenoid, (2α,3ß)-2,3,23-trihydroxyurs-13(18)-en-28-oic acid (1), along with twelve known compounds (2 - 13), were isolated from the roots of Actinidia chinensis Planch (Actinidiaceae). Their chemical structures were determined by 1D- and 2D-NMR spectra and mass spectrometry (MS). The crude extracts and six main constituents (8 - 13) were tested for cytochrome P450 (CYPs) enzyme inhibitory activity. The results showed that, except for compound 8, compounds 9 - 13 had different inhibitory effects on the cytochrome P450 (CYPs) enzyme, and compound 9 significantly inhibited the catalytic activities of CYP3A4 to < 10% of its control activities.

Anti-inflammatory constituents from the root of Litsea cubeba in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Context Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. (Lauraceae) has long been used as a folk remedy in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) for the treatment of rheumatic diseases. Previous studies from our laboratory indicated that L. cubeba extract showed anti-arthritic activity in rats. Objective To study L. cubeba chemically and biologically and to find the potential constituents responsible for its anti-arthritic effect. Materials and methods The compounds were isolated from the root of L. cubeba by column chromatography which eluted with PE:EtOAc gradient system, and the structures were elucidated by detailed spectroscopic data analysis; the anti-inflammatory activity of the isolated compounds was evaluated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells and the TNF-α and NO level were measured by ELISA (commercial kit); The iNOS and COX-2 mRNA expression were measured by RT-PCR and the phosphorylation of IκBα, IKKß, P38 and Akt were determined by western blots. Results A novel 9-fluorenone, 1-ethoxy-3,7-dihydroxy-4,6-dimethoxy-9-fluorenone (1), together with 4 known compounds, namely pinoresinol (2), syringaresinol (3), 9,9'-O-di-(E)-feruloyl-meso-5,5'-dimethoxysecoisolariciresinol (4) and lyoniresinol (5) were isolated from the root of L. cubeba for the first time. The IC50 for NO inhibition on compounds 1 and 4 were 56.1 ± 1.2 and 32.8 ± 2.3 µM, respectively. The IC50 for TNF-α inhibition were 28.2 ± 0.9 and 15.0 ± 1.0 µM, respectively. Both 1 and 4 suppress mRNA expression of iNOS, COX-2 and protein phosphorylation of IκBα, IKKß in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Discussion and conclusion Compounds 1 and 4 isolated from L. cubeba exhibited potent anti-inflammatory activity through the NF-κB signal pathway.

Chondrocytic Atf4 regulates osteoblast differentiation and function via Ihh.

Atf4 is a leucine zipper-containing transcription factor that activates osteocalcin (Ocn) in osteoblasts and indian hedgehog (Ihh) in chondrocytes. The relative contribution of Atf4 in chondrocytes and osteoblasts to the regulation of skeletal development and bone formation is poorly understood. Investigations of the Atf4(-/-);Col2a1-Atf4 mouse model, in which Atf4 is selectively overexpressed in chondrocytes in an Atf4-null background, demonstrate that chondrocyte-derived Atf4 regulates osteogenesis during development and bone remodeling postnatally. Atf4 overexpression in chondrocytes of the Atf4(-/-);Col2a1-Atf4 double mutants corrects the reduction in stature and limb in Atf4(-/-) embryos and rectifies the decrease in Ihh expression, Hh signaling, proliferation and accelerated hypertrophy that characterize the Atf4(-/-) developing growth plate cartilages. Unexpectedly, this genetic manipulation also restores the expression of osteoblastic marker genes, namely Ocn and bone sialoprotein, in Atf4(-/-) developing bones. In Atf4(-/-);Col2a1-Atf4 adult mice, all the defective bone parameters found in Atf4(-/-) mice, including bone volume, trabecular number and thickness, and bone formation rate, are rescued. In addition, the conditioned media of ex vivo cultures from wild-type or Atf4(-/-);Col2a1-Atf4, but not Atf4(-/-) cartilage, corrects the differentiation defects of Atf4(-/-) bone marrow stromal cells and Ihh-blocking antibody eliminates this effect. Together, these data indicate that Atf4 in chondrocytes is required for normal Ihh expression and for its paracrine effect on osteoblast differentiation. Therefore, the cell-autonomous role of Atf4 in chondrocytes dominates the role of Atf4 in osteoblasts during development for the control of early osteogenesis and skeletal growth.

Transforming growth factor ß suppresses osteoblast differentiation via the vimentin activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) axis.

ATF4 is an osteoblast-enriched transcription factor of the leucine zipper family. We recently identified that vimentin, a leucine zipper-containing intermediate filament protein, suppresses ATF4-dependent osteocalcin (Ocn) transcription and osteoblast differentiation. Here we show that TGFß inhibits ATF4-dependent activation of Ocn by up-regulation of vimentin expression. Osteoblasts lacking Atf4 (Atf4(-/-)) were less sensitive than wild-type (WT) cells to the inhibition by TGFß on alkaline phosphatase activity, Ocn transcription and mineralization. Importantly, the anabolic effect of a monoclonal antibody neutralizing active TGFß ligands on bone in WT mice was blunted in Atf4(-/-) mice. These data establish that ATF4 is required for TGFß-related suppression of Ocn transcription and osteoblast differentiation in vitro and in vivo. Interestingly, TGFß did not directly regulate the expression of ATF4; instead, it enhanced the expression of vimentin, a negative regulator of ATF4, at the post-transcriptional level. Accordingly, knockdown of endogenous vimentin in 2T3 osteoblasts abolished the inhibition of Ocn transcription by TGFß, confirming an indirect mechanism by which TGFß acts through vimentin to suppress ATF4-dependent Ocn activation. Furthermore, inhibition of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling, but not canonical Smad signaling, downstream of TGFß, blocked TGFß-induced synthesis of vimentin, and inhibited ATF4-dependent Ocn transcription in osteoblasts. Thus, our study identifies that TGFß stimulates vimentin production via PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling, which leads to suppression of ATF4-dependent Ocn transcription and osteoblast differentiation.

Heracleifolinosides A-F, new triterpene glycosides from Cimicifuga heracleifolia, and their inhibitory activities against hypoxia and reoxygenation.

Six new 9,19-cycloartane triterpene glycosides, heracleifolinosides A-F (1-6), and one new chromone, norkhelloside (7), were isolated from the rhizome of Cimicifuga heracleifolia, together with 15 known compounds (8-22). The structures of the new compounds were elucidated by means of spectroscopic methods including 2D NMR and mass spectrometry. The extracts of C. heracleifolia and all the isolated compounds were tested for activities against hypoxia and reoxygenation injury in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Heracleifolinoside B (2) is effectively resistant to hypoxia and reoxygenation-induced human umbilical vein endothelial cell injury, with cell viabilities of 61.95 ± 2.04 %, 77.04 ± 4.44 %, and 83.65 ± 3.29 % at concentrations of 1, 10, and 100 µM, respectively.

Genome-wide analysis of TPX2 gene family in Populus trichocarpa and its specific response genes under various abiotic stresses.

Microtubules are essential for regulating cell morphogenesis, plant growth, and the response of plants to abiotic stresses. TPX2 proteins are the main players determining the spatiotemporally dynamic nature of the MTs. However, how TPX2 members respond to abiotic stresses in poplar remains largely unknown. Herein, 19 TPX2 family members were identified from the poplar genome and analyzed the structural characteristics as well as gene expression patterns. All TPX2 members had the conserved structural characteristics, but exhibited different expression profiles in different tissues, indicating their varying roles during plant growth. Additionally, several light, hormone, and abiotic stress responsive cis-acting regulatory elements were detected on the promoters of PtTPX2 genes. Furthermore, expression analysis in various tissues of Populus trichocarpa showed that the PtTPX2 genes responded differently to heat, drought and salt stress. In summary, these results provide a comprehensive analysis for the TPX2 gene family in poplar and an effective contribution to revealing the mechanisms of PtTPX2 in the regulatory network of abiotic stress.

Atf4 regulates chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation during endochondral ossification by activating Ihh transcription.

Activating transcription factor 4 (Atf4) is a leucine-zipper-containing protein of the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) family. Ablation of Atf4 (Atf4(-/-)) in mice leads to severe skeletal defects, including delayed ossification and low bone mass, short stature and short limbs. Atf4 is expressed in proliferative and prehypertrophic growth plate chondrocytes, suggesting an autonomous function of Atf4 in chondrocytes during endochondral ossification. In Atf4(-/-) growth plate, the typical columnar structure of proliferative chondrocytes is disturbed. The proliferative zone is shortened, whereas the hypertrophic zone is transiently expanded. The expression of Indian hedgehog (Ihh) is markedly decreased, whereas the expression of other chondrocyte marker genes, such as type II collagen (Col2a1), PTH/PTHrP receptor (Pth1r) and type X collagen (Col10a1), is normal. Furthermore, forced expression of Atf4 in chondrocytes induces endogenous Ihh mRNA, and Atf4 directly binds to the Ihh promoter and activates its transcription. Supporting these findings, reactivation of Hh signaling pharmacologically in mouse limb explants corrects the Atf4(-/-) chondrocyte proliferation and short limb phenotypes. This study thus identifies Atf4 as a novel transcriptional activator of Ihh in chondrocytes that paces longitudinal bone growth by controlling growth plate chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation.

Iridoid glucosides and a C13-norisoprenoid from Lamiophlomis rotata and their effects on NF-κB activation.

Four new iridoid glucosides, 7-dehydroxyzaluzioside (1), 6'-O-syringylphlorigidoside C (2), barlerin-6″-hydroxy-2″,6″-dimethylocta-2″,7″-dienate ester (3), 6ß-n-butoxy-7,8-dehydropenstemonoside (4), and a new C(13)-norisoprenoid derivative, 5ß,6α-dihydroxy-3ß-(ß-D-glucoyranosyloxy)-7-megastigmen-9-one (5), together with 16 known iridoid glucosides, were isolated from Lamiophlomis rotata. The structures of these new compounds were elucidated by HRMS, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy. A stable nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB)-luciferase-expressing human embryonic kidney 293 cell line was used in the luciferase assay for monitoring the anti-inflammatory activity of the compounds. It was found that 6ß-n-butoxy-7,8-dehydropenstemonoside (4) and two known compounds (8-epi-7-deoxyloganin and 7,8-dehydropenstemonoside) had a significant inhibitory effect on lipopolysaccharide-stimulated NF-κB activation.

Antiplatelet and antithrombotic activities of timosaponin B-II, an extract of Anemarrhena asphodeloides.

1. Antithrombotic agents are effective in the treatment of ischaemic stroke. Timosaponin B-II (TB-II) is a major active component of Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge (Liliaceae; rhizome) that has protective effects against cerebral ischaemic damage. The present study examined the antiplatelet and antithrombotic actions of TB-II. 2. In in vitro experiments, TB-II (20, 40 and 80 mg/mL) potently and dose-dependently inhibited ADP-induced platelet aggregation. Furthermore, 1, 3 and 6 mg/kg TB-II prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time by 9.29, 16.86 and 25.50%, respectively, but had no effect on the prothrombin time. Furthermore, 1, 3 and 6 mg/kg TB-II significantly reduced the wet weight, dry weight and length of the thrombi (%inhibition (based on wet weight): 13.6, 19.8 and 24.7%, respectively). 3. In a rabbit arteriovenous shunt model, 1, 3 and 6 mg/kg, i.v., TB-II had no effect on thrombus formation. Plasma euglobulin lysis time and fibrin degradation product were not affected by 1, 3 and 6 mg/kg TB-II, but plasminogen levels were decreased significantly by 14.4, 18.3 and 29.0%, respectively. 4. The results of the present study demonstrate significant antiplatelet and anticoagulation effects of TB-II and suggest that these actions could contribute to its neuroprotective effect against damage following cerebral ischaemia damage.

[Effect of valsartan on vasoconstriction induced by the chronic injury of the adventitia in the rat collared carotid artery].

OBJECTIVE: Vasoconstriction and vascular hypersensitivity to serotonin were previously shown in animal models of adventitia injury. We investigated the contribution of angiotensin II (AngII)/AngII receptors and oxidative stress to vascular contractility and reactivity in this model. METHODS: Wistar Kyoto rats were divided into 3 groups: normal (n = 6, no any intervention, only for measuring the serum AngII concentration), vehicle (n = 12, collared), and valsartan (n = 12, collared + valsartan 30 mg×kg(-1)×d(-1)). After one week of treatment, adventitia injury was induced by positioning a silicone collar around the right carotid artery for one week. Blood flow and vascular reactivity to serotonin were determined one week after injury, the blood from left ventricle was taken to measure the serum AngII concentration by ELISA, and carotids were harvested for morphometry and Western blot analysis. RESULTS: Adventitia injury induced lumen cross-sectional area reduction (-44% vs. -5%), media diameter increase (62% vs. 10%), blood flow reduction [(2.79 ± 0.22) vs. (4.33 ± 0.84) ml/min] were significantly attenuated by valsartan. The increased vascular reactivity sensitivity to serotonin in vehicle group was also significantly reduced in valsartan group. Serum AngII concentration was significantly increased in vehicle group [(45.21 ± 4.52) pg/ml vs. (19.83 ± 0.5) pg/ml in normal rats, P = 0.0148] and the expression of AngII type 1 (AT(1)) receptor, AngII type 2 (AT(2)) receptor, as well as p22(phox) in collared arteries were significantly upregulated. Valsartan did not affect the AT(1) receptor expression but further increased serum AngII concentration [(89.73 ± 20.44) pg/ml vs. (45.21 ± 4.52) pg/ml, P = 0.001], and AT(2) receptor expression, while downregulated p22(phox) expressions. CONCLUSIONS: Collar-induced adventitia injury resulted in chronic vasoconstriction and vascular hypersensitivity to serotonin via increased serum AngII level, upregulated AngII receptors expression in the vascular well, and activated local oxidative stress. These changes could be blocked by valsartan suggesting a crucial role of AngII/AngII receptors on vascular contractility and reactivity changes in this model.

Plant multiscale networks: charting plant connectivity by multi-level analysis and imaging techniques.

In multicellular and even single-celled organisms, individual components are interconnected at multiscale levels to produce enormously complex biological networks that help these systems maintain homeostasis for development and environmental adaptation. Systems biology studies initially adopted network analysis to explore how relationships between individual components give rise to complex biological processes. Network analysis has been applied to dissect the complex connectivity of mammalian brains across different scales in time and space in The Human Brain Project. In plant science, network analysis has similarly been applied to study the connectivity of plant components at the molecular, subcellular, cellular, organic, and organism levels. Analysis of these multiscale networks contributes to our understanding of how genotype determines phenotype. In this review, we summarized the theoretical framework of plant multiscale networks and introduced studies investigating plant networks by various experimental and computational modalities. We next discussed the currently available analytic methodologies and multi-level imaging techniques used to map multiscale networks in plants. Finally, we highlighted some of the technical challenges and key questions remaining to be addressed in this emerging field.