Genetic diversity of MHC class I loci in six non-model frogs is shaped by positive selection and gene duplication.

Comparative studies of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes across vertebrate species can reveal the evolutionary processes that shape the structure and function of immune regulatory proteins. In this study, we characterized MHC class I sequences from six frog species representing three anuran families (Hylidae, Centrolenidae and Ranidae). Using cDNA from our focal species, we amplified a total of 79 unique sequences spanning exons 2-4 that encode the extracellular domains of the functional alpha chain protein. We compared intra- and interspecific nucleotide and amino-acid divergence, tested for recombination, and identified codon sites under selection by estimating the rate of non-synonymous to synonymous substitutions with multiple codon-based maximum likelihood methods. We determined that positive (diversifying) selection was acting on specific amino-acid sites located within the domains that bind pathogen-derived peptides. We also found significant signals of recombination across the physical distance of the genes. Finally, we determined that all the six species expressed two or three putative classical class I loci, in contrast to the single locus condition of Xenopus laevis. Our results suggest that MHC evolution in anurans is a dynamic process and that variation in numbers of loci and genetic diversity can exist among taxa. Thus, the accumulation of genetic data for more species will be useful in further characterizing the relative importance of processes such as selection, recombination and gene duplication in shaping MHC loci among amphibian lineages.

Morphological variation in the tropical anole, Anolis casildae (Squamata: Polychrotidae).

We describe morphological variation (scalation and coloration) observed among eight individuals of the Panamanian lizard species Anolis casildae. This variation was not observed in the holotype and aids in identification of this recently described species (originally described on the basis of a single, male specimen). This species occurs only in the Reserva Forestal Fortuna (Chiriquí Province) and the adjacent Bosque Protector Palo Seco (Bocas del Toro Province) in western Panama. Anolis casildae can be distinguished from all other Panamanian anole species via six features: (1) two enlarged superciliary scales (the first larger than the second); (2) an anterior nasal scale in contact with the rostral scale or separated from the rostral by one scale; (3) 6-8 sublabial scales to the center of the eye; (4) 3-4 scales between the supraobital semicircles; (5) unique coloration (4-6 oblique brown bands interspersed by blue-outlined yellow patches; dewlap is a dirty cream color with broad yellow scale rows irregularly interspersed with smaller emerald green scales) and (6) A. casildae occurs from 1,050 to 1,400 m in the Cordillera Central. We also compare our natural history observations of A. casildae to a similar large anole, A. frenatus, a species which we believe A. casildae to be closely related.

Wildlife disease. Recent introduction of a chytrid fungus endangers Western Palearctic salamanders.

Emerging infectious diseases are reducing biodiversity on a global scale. Recently, the emergence of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans resulted in rapid declines in populations of European fire salamanders. Here, we screened more than 5000 amphibians from across four continents and combined experimental assessment of pathogenicity with phylogenetic methods to estimate the threat that this infection poses to amphibian diversity. Results show that B. salamandrivorans is restricted to, but highly pathogenic for, salamanders and newts (Urodela). The pathogen likely originated and remained in coexistence with a clade of salamander hosts for millions of years in Asia. As a result of globalization and lack of biosecurity, it has recently been introduced into naïve European amphibian populations, where it is currently causing biodiversity loss.

Chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of Australia and Central America.

Epidermal changes caused by a chytridiomycete fungus (Chytridiomycota; Chytridiales) were found in sick and dead adult anurans collected from montane rain forests in Queensland (Australia) and Panama during mass mortality events associated with significant population declines. We also have found this new disease associated with morbidity and mortality in wild and captive anurans from additional locations in Australia and Central America. This is the first report of parasitism of a vertebrate by a member of the phylum Chytridiomycota. Experimental data support the conclusion that cutaneous chytridiomycosis is a fatal disease of anurans, and we hypothesize that it is the proximate cause of these recent amphibian declines.